THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

IN  MEMORY  OF 
MRS.  VIRGINIA  B.  SPORER 


AN   INTRODUCTION 

TO    THE 

METHODS  AND  MATERIALS  OF 
LITERARY  CRITICISM 


THE  BASES  IN 
AESTHETICS  AND   POETICS 


CHARLES    MILLS   GAYLEY,  A.B. 

PROFESSOR  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  IN  THI 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


FRED   NEWTON    SCOTT,  PH.D. 

JUNIOR  PROFESSOR  OF  RHETORIC  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  MICHIGAN 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 
GINN  &  COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 


1899 


COPYRIGHT,  1899,  BY 
CHARLES  MILLS  GAYLEY  AND  FRED  NEWTON  SCOTT 


ALL    RIGHTS    RESEKVEP 


PREFACE. 


THE  temper  and  conditions  of  the  age  encourage  the  critical 
habit.  Literature  is  no  longer  the  affair  of  patron  or  coterie, 
but  of  the  public.  The  public  reads  for  itself  and  estimates. 
It  is  not  the  scholar  alone  but  the  artisan  who  judges  the 
latest  novel,  satire,  or  barrack-room  ballad.  He  weighs,  com- 
pares, and  pronounces  judgment.  And  from  the  multitude  of 
men  that  are  critics  unto  themselves,  and  out  of  the  confusion 
of  conflicting  opinions,  arises  the  demand  for  system  and 
principle. 

What  obtains  for  the  disinterested  reader  obtains  a  fortiori 
for  those  who  attempt  to  express  public  opinion  or  to  form  the 
taste  of  others.  The  reviewer,  the  student  and  the  teacher  of 
literature,  the  investigator  of  literary  history  or  of  literary  the- 
ory, all  who  make  of  criticism  a  discipline,  an  aim,  or  a  trade, 
are  interested  in  whatever  tends  to  simplify  the  inquiry. 

What  the  inquirer  wants  is  guidance,  not  dogmatic  formula- 
tion of  principles,  but  systematic  presentation  of  the  problems 
that  must  be  solved  and  of  the  information  available  for  the 
process.  For  literary  criticism  has  not  yet  reached  the  scien- 
tific, still"  less  the  '  cocksure  '  period  of  its  development.  Its 
present  consciousness  is  dynamic,  and  its  condition  transi- 
tional. It  has  outgrown  the  stage  of  unquestioning  acquies- 
cence in  tradition,  authority,  personal  bias  or  prejudice.  But 
it  is  not  yet  fully  alive  to  its  possibilities,  scope,  or  aim,  —  not 
organized.  An  appreciative  curiosity  characterizes  the  study 


iv  PREFACE. 

to-day;  but  this  confines  itself  to  a  few  insistent  problems, 
as  if  unaware  of  their  relativity ;  and  it  is  vague  concerning  the 
processes  and  materials  contributory  to  the  inquiry. 

Now  this  book  does  not  advocate  or  advance  a  method,  nor 
does  it  aim  to  supply  the  material  necessary  for  exhaustive 
investigation  of  any  one  department  of  literary  criticism.  It 
seeks  to  place  before  those  interested  a  conspectus  of  the 
problems  to  be  solved,  a  review  of  the  methods  suggested  for 
their  solution,  an  indication  of  the  materials  available  with 
reference  to  their  sources  and  frequently  to  their  quality. 

Such  an  attempt  should  be  justified  in  the  opinion  of  those 
who  are  unconsciously,  as  well  as  of  those  who  are  consciously, 
interested  in  criticism.  For  the  direct  purpose  of  the  study  is 
not  to  train  literary  analysts,  but  rational  lovers  of  literature. 
And  to  be  a  rational  lover  demands  effort ;  for  while  the  process' 
of  literary  enjoyment,  like  that  of  literary  creation,  may  appear 
to  be  unforced  and  natural,  there  are  degrees  of  enjoyment, 
the  highest  of  which  is  criticism;  as  there  are  of  creation,  the 
highest  of  which  is  art.  Each  of  these  processes  has  its  reason 
for  existence  and  its  law  of  development.  But  the  principles 
which  find  expression  in  enjoyment,  and  ultimately  in  criticism, 
have  their  root  in  those  that  underlie  the  processes  of  creation. 
A  study  of  the  canons  of  literary  judgment  becomes  a  study  of 
the  principles  of  literature.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  lovers  of 
the  art  are  bidden  to  what  may  look  like  a  barmecide  feast 
of  methods  and  materials. 

But  as  the  principles  of  literary  judgment  are  akin  to  all 
aesthetic  principles,  are,  in  fact,  only  the  application  in  a  par- 
ticular field  of  the  general  laws  of  art,  so  the  methods  by  which 
these  principles  shall  be  applied  in  the  process  of  critical 
appraisement  are  the  adaptation  to  given  conditions,  and  to  a 
given  end,  of  the  critical  method  that  characterizes  the  larger 
science  of  Discrimination.  The  study,  therefore,  of  the  methods 
of  literary  criticism  is  a  discipline  cognate  with,  and  contribu- 


PREFACE.  V 

tory  to,  the  pursuit  of  other  sciences,  at  the  same  time  that  it 
is  correlated  with  the  scientific  study  of  every  art. 

The  plan  of  study  here  outlined  has  been  arranged  for  con- 
venience and  comprehensiveness.  The  objects  more  directly 
aimed  at  in  this  volume,  and  that  which  will  shortly  follow  it, 
are,  first,  to  give  the  reader  his  orientation  by  showing  the  rela- 
tion of  literature  to  art,  criticism,  aesthetics,  and  the  contribu- 
tory sciences,  and  by  displaying  the  solidarity  and  scope  of 
literature;  second,  to  consider  the  main  types  or  forms  which 
literature  has  assumed  in  the  course  of  its  development ;  third, 
to  trace  the  movement  and  determine  the  law  of  literary  waves 
or  fashions  ;  and,  last,  to  deduce  from  these  considerations  the 
principles  which  should  guide  us  in  critically  estimating  given 
literary  products. 

When  possible,  each  topic  has  been  considered  in  a  twofold 
aspect,  theoretical  and  historical.  Generally,  it  will  be  found 
that,  under  each  of  these  subdivisions,  the  first  section  presents 
an  analysis  of  the  subject  under  discussion,  and  a  statement 
of  the  problems  involved,  with  indication  of  the  authorities 
most  necessary  to  be  consulted ;  the  second  section  consists  of 
a  bibliography  alphabetically  arranged,  and  frequently  accom- 
panied by  annotations  which  aim  to  give  the  student  or  the 
prospective  buyer  some  idea  of  the  content  and  value  of  the 
work  in  its  bearing  upon  the  subject ;  and  the  third  section,  called, 
for  lack  of  a  better  name,  General  Note,  is  an  omnium  gatherum, 
a  receptacle  for  such  references  and  suggestions  as  have  failed 
to  find  lodgment  in  the  preceding  sections. 

It  will  not  be  for  an  instant  imagined  that  this  course  of 
study  need  be  pursued  in  the  order  outlined,  or  that  it  should 
be  crowded  into  six  months  or  a  year.  To  each  reader  and 
each  class  are  the  conditions  thereof.  Much  will  depend  upon 
the  previous  preparation  of  the  reader.  The  problems  pre- 
sented in  the  following  chapters  require  for  their  solution  a 
running  application  of  rhetorical  science  and  psychology,  an 


vi  PREFACE. 

acquaintance  with  literary  masterpieces  and  the  history  of 
literature,  some  knowledge  at  first  hand  of  art  and  its  history, 
and  a  continual  study  of  aesthetics. 

While  the  introduction  to  each  topic  here  considered  is  theo 
retical,  nothing  is  further  from  our  intent  than  to  encourage 
a  priori  speculation.  The  treatment  of  literary  types  in  the 
second  volume  will  especially  illustrate  our  conviction  concerning 
this  subject.  The  principles  of  criticism  depend,  to  a  large  ex- 
tent, upon  the  principles  of  art.  But  to  institute  a  vague  theo- 
rizing about  the  principles  of  art  is  as  unprofitable  as  to  pursue 
a  criticism  grounded  on  the  uncertain  bias  or  prejudice  of  indi- 
vidual taste.  That  music,  poetry,  and  the  plastic  arts  exist 
implies  a  reason  for  their  existence.  But  to  arrive  at  this  rea- 
son and  at  the  characteristics  of  its  various  manifestations  the 
student  must  advance  from  the  particular  to  the  general.  So, 
in  seeking  the  laws  of  literature,  he  should  naturally  first 
acquaint  himself  with  the  history  of  literature,  with  the  devel- 
opment of  its  kinds,  and  with  the  peculiarities  of  the  various 
kinds.  He  must  have  material  at  his  command  before  he  spec- 
ulates upon  the  ontology  of  material.  Having  a  fair  knowledge 
of  the  scope  and  the  evolution  of  a  literary  species,  he  may  pro- 
ceed to  an  inquiry  into  the  laws  that  regulate  its  evolution. 
For,  as  we  have  already  said,  the  forces  that  impel  and  the 
laws  that  govern  literary  production  are  forces  and  laws  that 
go  far  to  determine  the  canons  by  which  that  production  should 
be  judged.  To  investigate  the  principles  of  literary  criticism, 
the  student  must  investigate  literature,  not  by  the  study  of  a 
national  literature  only,  but  comparatively.  From  the  study  of 
a  specimen  he  passes  to  the  comparison  with  others  of  the 
same  type ;  he  proceeds  to  the  comparison  of  type  with  type  in 
characteristics  and  in  growth,  of  national  literature  with  national 
literature,  and  finally  arrives  at  the  comparison  of  literary  art 
with  other  forms  of  art.  But  conjointly  with  this  inductive 
study  of  literary  art  there  should  be  acquired  an  acquaintance 


PREFACE.  vii 

with  the  critical  judgment  of  the  ages  concerning  art  in  gen- 
eral, with  principles  philosophically  deduced,  as  well  as  with 
those  taught  by  experience.  So  also  with  the  best  opinion 
concerning  the  laws  and  the  development  of  mind.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  aesthetics  and  psychology  to  the  student  of  literary 
criticism.  The  results  contributed  by  these  studies  widen  the 
horizon  and  intensify  the  gaze  of  the  literary  investigator. 
They  teach  him  to  correlate  literature  with  other  arts,  and  all 
with  the  other  phenomena  by  which  mind  is  expressed. 

And  from  this  point  of  view  it  may  appear  that  this  intro- 
duction to  the  Methods  and  Materials  of  Literary  Criticism  is 
an  introduction  to  aesthetics  on  the  one  hand,  and  on  the  other 
to  the  comparative  study  of  literature. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

NATURE  AND  FUNCTION  OF   LITERARY  CRITICISM.   • 
PART  I.  — THEORY  OF  CRITICISM. 

PAGE 

§•  i.    DIVISION  OF  THE  SUBJECT  AND  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS        i 
I.     Definitions  of  Criticism      ......         I 

II.     Criticism  and  Kindred  Sciences          .         .  .4 

III.  Kinds  of  Criticism     .......         4 

IV.  Types  of  Literary  Criticism 5 

V.     Purpose  of  Literary  Criticism     .         .         .         .         .         6 

VI.     Relation  of  Criticism  to  Creation       ....         7 

VII.     Qualifications  of  the  Critic 8 

VIII.     Canons  of  Criticism  .  ....         9 

§    2.     REFERENCES -9 

§    3.     GENERAL  NOTE       ...  -43 

A.  Examination  of  Critiques         .         .  -43 

B.  Special  Topics          .         .  .46 

C.  Miscellaneous  References         .  ...       51 

PART  II.  —  HISTORY  OF  CRITICISM. 

§    4.    DIVISION  OF  THE  SUBJECT  AND  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS  .      55 

I.     Development  of  Criticism  as  Practice  55 

II.     Development  of  Criticism  as  Theory   .         .  -59 

III.     Relation  of  Critical  Theory  to  Critical  Practice  .  .       61 

§    5.    REFERENCES ...        .  .61 

§    6.     GENERAL  NOTE 77 

1.  On  the  History  of  French  Criticism          .         .        •  •  •       77 

2.  On  the  History  of  English  Criticism          .         .         .  .       78 

3.  On  the  History  of  German  Criticism         .        .  -79 

4.  On  the  History  of  Italian  Criticism           .         .         .  -79 

5.  On  the  History  of  Spanish  Criticism         .         ...  -79 

ix 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    II. 
PRINCIPLES  OF  ART. 

PART  I.  —  THEORY  OF  ART. 

PAGE 

7.  STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;  ANALYSIS 80 

I.  Fundamental  Problems Si 

II.  Minute  Analysis  of  Problems 81 

8.  REFERENCES     . 87 

9.  GENERAL  NOTE       ...                 121 

I.     Courses  of  Study t2i 

A.  General  Reading 122 

B.  Suggestions  for  Historical  Study  .         .         .126 

II.  Suggestions  for  Investigation  of  Special  Problems       .  135 

A.  The  Beautiful 135 

B.  The  Ugly 136 

C.  The  Sublime                            136 

D.  The  Pathetic                                    .         .         .         .  137 

E.  The  Comic    .                  137 

F.  Genius  .        .                 138 

G.  Rhythm     '    .        „• 138 

H.  The  Relation  of  Art  to  Nature      .         .         .         .139 

7.  Growth  of  the  Feeling  for  Nature         .         .        .  163 

III.  Methods  of  Research 166 

IV.  Miscellaneous                                                                     .  168 


PART  II.  — DEVELOPMENT  OF  ART. 

§  10.     STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS 172 

I.     Art  in  General 173 

II.     The  Several  Arts 180 

si  ii.     REFERENCES     , 182 

§  12.    GENERAL  NOTE 198 

A.  A  Short  Course  of  Reading     .  .         .        .      '  .  198 

B.  Reading  for  Advanced  Students 199 

C.  Collateral  Aids 199 


CONTENTS.  xi 

CHAPTER    III. 
PRINCIPLES   OF   LITERATURE. 

PART  I.  — THEORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

I'AGE 

§  13.    STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;  ANALYSIS 200 

I.     Nature  and  Scope  of  Literature           200 

II.     Relation  of  Literature  to  Art       ...         .  •       .         .  202 

III.  Relation  of  Literature  to  Science  and  Philosophy       .  203 

IV.  The  Elements  of  Literature         ....  204 
V.     The  Author          ....                  ...  210 

VI.     The  Public ...  210 

VII.     The  Classification  of  Literature           .         .                  .  210 

§  14.     REFERENCES .         .211 

§  15.     GENERAL  NOTE        ....                 ....  233 

I.     Literature  and  Language      .         .                                   .  233 

II.     Style .233 

III.  Figures          .......                  .  235 

IV.  Classification  of  Literature            ...                  .  239 

V.  Classification  of  Literary  Theory          .         .         .    '     .  242 

PART  II.  — COMPARATIVE  LITERATURE. 

§  16.     STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS      .        .                .        .        .        .  248 

§  17.    REFERENCES 250 

§  18.    GENERAL  NOTE 266 

I.     Collateral  Aids 266 

II.     The  Origins  of  Poetry           266 

III.  General  Histories  of  Literature    .         .        .        .         .  274 

IV.  Studies  in  Literary  Influence        .         .         .                  .  275 
V.     Miscellaneous  References     .         .        .        ...        -277 

CHAPTER   IV. 
THE  THEORY  OF  POETRY. 

§  19.     STATEMENT  OF  THE  PROBLEM;  METHOD  OF  STUDY   .  279 

I.     Elementary  Conceptions        ,         .         .         .         .    '.     .  280 

II.     Scheme  of  Investigation i         .  288 

§  20.     REFERENCES     .        .        .         .        ,        .        .        .        .        .  294 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   V. 

PAGE 

§  21  A.     THE  HISTORICAL  STUDY  OF  POETRY         .                 .        .  350 

1.  The  Aim  of  the  Historian 350 

2.  The  Approach        .         .                           ....  351 

3.  The  Materials         .                                                                .  353 

4.  The  Process 353 

5.  Literature  of  the  Subject 368 

CHAPTER   VI. 

§  21  B.    THE  HISTORICAL  STUDY  OF  POETICS        .        .        .        .380 

1.  Latin  Treatises 380 

2.  Development  of  Poetics  in  England      ....  383 

3.  Development  of  Poetics  in  Germany     ....  422 

4.  Development  of  Poetics  in  France         ....  428 

5.  Development  of  Poetics  in  Other  Romance  Literatures  445 

6.  Poetics  of  Northern  European  Literatures    .         .         .  450 

7.  Poetics  in  the  Orient      .......  450 

CHAPTER   VII. 
THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   VERSIFICATION. 

§  22.     STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;  ANALYSIS 451 

I.     Rhythm 451 

II.     Metre 452 

III.  The  Kinds  of  Metre 454 

IV.  Rhyme,  the  Refrain,  etc 456 

V.     The  Strophe 457 

VI.     The  History  of  Metre 458 

VII.     The  Study  of  Comparative  Versification  .         .         -458 

VIII.     Metric  from  the  Phonetic  Point  of  View  .         .         .  458 

§  23.     REFERENCES .        -459 

§  24.    GENERAL  NOTE 487 

A.  Classical  Metres 487 

B.  Modern  Metres 495 

APPENDIX  :  A  Bibliography  of  Aristotle's  Poetics      .         .         .         -519 

INDEX 527 


LITERARY    CRITICISM. 
CHAPTER    I. 

NATURE  AND   FUNCTION   OF  LITERARY  CRITICISM. 


PART  I.  —  THEORY  OF  CRITICISM. 

§  1.     DIVISION   OF  THE   SUBJECT  AND   STATEMENT   OF   PROBLEMS. 

THE  study  of ,  literary  criticism  may  best  be  begun  by  an 
inquiry  into  the  meaning  of  the  term.  The  following  questions 
then  suggest  themselves  :  What  is  the  nature  of  the  process 
called  criticism  ?  How  many  kinds  of  criticism  are  there,  and 
what  is  the  principle  of  classification  ?  How  is  literary  criticism 
distinguished  from  other  varieties  or  types  of  criticism  ? 

/.  Definitions  of  criticism.  —  These  may  be  drawn  from  the 
usages  of  speech  and  writing,  or  framed  in  accordance  with 
some  theory ;  or,  the  two  methods  may  be  combined,  one  being 
used  to  correct  and  verify  the  other.  In  what  follows  we  shall 
first  consider  popular  usages  of  the  term,  then  call  attention  to 
its  theoretical  aspects. 

A.  USAGE.  —  The  following  are  some  of  the  meanings 
commonly  attached  to  the  word : 

i.  Criticism  is  used  in  the  sense  of  fault-finding  or  taking 
exception.  The  critic  is  one  who  takes  a  hostile  attitude. 


2  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  1,  i 

He  is  "  a  carper  and  a  caviller."     His  business  is  to  discover 
imperfections.    This  may  be  said  to  be  the  traditional  meaning. 

2.  Of  late  years  writers  like  Matthew  Arnold  have  attempted 
to  give  criticism  a  more  genial  function  than  it  had  formerly. 
Such  writers  maintain  that  the  business  of  criticism  is  less  to  cen- 
sure than  to  praise.     Some  even  go  so  far  as  to  say  that  the  critic 
ought  never  to  censure.     (See  Moulton  and  Taine.)     Is  not 
this  going  too  far  ?     May  we  apply  the  name  critic  to  a  man 
who  sees  only  the  good  points  of  what  he  is  criticising  ?  or  who 
registers  what  he  sees  without  saying  whether  it  is  good  or  bad  ? 

3.  Another  and  more  philosophic  way  of  defining  criticism 
is  to  say  that  it  is  a  process,  or  the  process,  of  passing  judg- 
ment upon  anything.     For  this  view,  support  is  found  in  the 
derivation  of  the  term  criticism  from  npivuv,  meaning  originally 
to  separate  and  then  to  judge. 

4.  Allied   to   the    preceding   definition   is   a   fourth,  which 
makes  criticism  a  process  of  comparison.     "Criticism,"  says 
Mr.  Robertson  (Essays,  p.  i),  "is  a  process  that  goes  on  over 
all  the  field  of  human  knowledge,  being  simply  comparison  or 
clash  of  opinion."     And  Mr.  Godkin,  in  forum,  17:  45,  says: 
"All  genuine  criticism  consists  in   comparison    between  two 
ways  of  doing  something."     Does  comparison  in  these  cases 
mean  the  same  as  judgment  ?  or  as  classifying  with  or  with- 
out ranking  ?     Do  these  definitions  exclude  from  criticism  the 
exercise  of  the  imagination  and  the  emotions? 

5.  A  famous  definition  is  that  which  Matthew  Arnold  gives 
in  his  essay,  On  the  Function  of  Criticism,  namely,  "  to  see  the 
object  as  in  itself  it  really  is."      To  this  should  be  joined 
another  phrase  from  the  same  essay,  "the  endeavor  to  learn 
and   propagate   the   best   that    is  known    and    thought   in   the 
world."   Do  the  two  definitions  come  to  the  same  thing  ?    Is  not 
seeing  a  thing  as  in  itself  it  really  is,  the  same  as  judging  it? 
If  judging  means  making  a  comparison,  with  what  do  we  com- 
pare a  thing  when  we  see  it  as  in  itself  it  really  is  ?     Again, 


ff.]  DEFINITIONS  OF  CRITICISM.  3 

what  attitude  does  Mr.  Arnold  assume  towards  fault-finding 
or  censuring  ?  May  his  method  be  regarded  as  impartial 
appreciation  ?  and  would  his  definition  exclude  the  destructive 
kind  of  criticism  ?  With  Mr.  Arnold's  definition  should  be  com- 
pared the  idea  held  by  Kant,  that  criticism  is  an  endeavor  to 
find  the  principle  or  common  ground  which  lies  back  of  every 
difference  of  opinion.  (See  §  3,  B  i.) 

For   other   definitions,   see    Elze,   Blass,   Urlichs,   Moulton, 
Dowden,  Fuller,  Brunetiere,  Ward,  Brandes,  in  §  2,  below. 

B.    THEORY.  —  Approaching  the  subject  now  from  a  different 
direction,  we  may  ask  : 

1.  What  is  the  SCIENTIFIC  BASIS  of  criticism?   .Is  criticism 
a  science,  or  an  art,  or  merely  a  method  ?     If  a  science,  may  it 
be  classed   among  the  exact    sciences  ?      Does    it   belong   to 
the  descriptive  sciences  like  psychology,  or  to  the  normative 
sciences  like  ethics  and  logic  ?     Is  it  an  inductive  or  a  deduc- 
tive process  ? 

2.  What  is  the  PSYCHOLOGICAL  BASIS  of  criticism?   Does  criti- 
cism proceed  from  the  emotions,  or  from  the  intellect  ?  or  do 
both  combine  in  the  critical  process  ?     If  it  is  purely  intellectual, 
how  does  it  differ  from  other  operations  of  the  intellect,  such  as 
imagination  and  judgment  ?     Is  there  a  critical  element  in  every 
mental  process  ?     If  criticism  is  an  act  of  the  judgment,  in  what 
way  does  it  differ  from  other  judgments  ? 

3.  What  is  the  SOCIAL  BASIS  of  criticism  ?     Is  criticism  indi- 
vidual or  social  in  its  aim  ?     Is  the  test  which  it  applies   an 
individual  or  a  social  test  ?     What  part  does  criticism  play  in 
the  workings  of  the  social  body  ?     How  does  it  affect  social 
progress  ? 

4.  What  is  the  PHILOSOPHICAL  BASIS  of  criticism  ?     Where 
in  the  division  of  the  field  of  human  knowledge  and  activity,  is 
the    place    of    criticism  ?      Is   it   a  principal  or  a  subordinate 
division  ?     Is  it  a  process,  or  a  principle,  or  is  it  both  ?     Is  it  sub' 


4  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§!.//. 

jective  or  objective  ?  May  it  deal  with  things  of  nature,  or  is 
it  concerned  only  with  things  of  art  ?  Is  it  abstract  or  con- 
crete ?  Is  it  analytic,  or  synthetic,  or  organic  ?  Is  it  a  positive 
force  or  a  negative  force  ? 

//.  Criticism  and  kindred  sciences.  —  A.  In  philology  and 
religion,  and  sometimes  in  law,  it  is  customary  to  distinguish 
between  criticism  and  hermeneutics  (interpretation,  exegesis). 
According  to  Boeckh  (Encykl.  d.  Phil.  Wissensch.,  p.  77),  the 
purpose  of  hermeneutics  is  ''to  understand  the  object  itself  in  its 
own  nature,"  while  the  purpose  of  criticism  is  not  to  understand 
an  object  in  and  for  itself,  but  "  to  establish  a  relation  with 
some  other  object  in  such  wise  that  the  knowledge  of  the 
relation  is  the  end  in  view"  (p.  170).  (Cf.  Blass,  Urlichs, 
Paul.  See  also  Lieber,  who  writes  on  hermeneutics  from  the 
legal  point  of  view,  and  Landerer  and  Schleiermacher,  who 
write  on  the  same  subject  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
theologian.) 

B.  How  is  criticism  related  to  such  sciences  as  ethics, 
psychology,  sociology,  politics,  anthropology  ?  What  is  its 
relation  to  aesthetics  ? 

///.  Kinds  of  criticism.  —  Although  the  difficulties  of  classi- 
fication are  as  great  as  those  of  definition,  we  shall  find  upon 
careful  examination  that  much  of  the  confusion  is  due  to 
the  fact  that  two  principles  of  classification  have  been  com- 
monly employed,  one  referring  to  the  subject  matter  of  the 
criticism,  the  other  to  the  method  of  procedure. 

A.  According  to  the  first  principle  of  division,  any  critical 
process  which  deals  with  the  facts  of  history  is  called  historical 
criticism,  any  critical  process  which  deals  with  science  is 
scientific  criticism ;  and  so  any  critical  process  which  deals 
with  literature  is  called  literary  criticism.  The  kinds  of 
criticism  are  as  numerous  as  the  kinds  of  subject  matter. 


IV.\  TYPES  OF  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  5 

B.  According  to  the  second  principle  of  division,  the  name 
is  determined  by  the  method.  If  the  historical  method  is 
pursued,  the  result  is  called  historical  criticism.  In  like 
manner  the  application  of  the  principles  of  science  is  scientific 
criticism,  and  of  philosophy  is  philosophical  criticism,  whether 
applied  to  history,  philology,  art,  or  literature. 

//.  Types  of  literary  criticism.  —  A.  LITERARY  criticism, 
it  will  be  noticed,  is  named  with  reference  to  its  subject 
matter.  It  is  not  a  method  which  can  be  applied  to  other 
subjects.  Its  method  may  be  scientific,  historical,  philo- 
sophical, psychological,  or  any  other  that  answers  the  purpose. 
Some,  it  is  true,  hold  that  literature  is  a  species  of  art  and  that 
only  the  methods  of  criticism  appropriate  to  art  are  applicable 
to  literature.  But  is  this  the  case?  (Examine  the  article  by 
J.  H.  Leuba  in  Am.  JL  of  Psychology,  5 :  496  ;  The  Case  of 
John  Bunyan  by  Prof.  Royce  in  Psychological  Review,  i:  22, 
134,  230  ;  La  Psychologic  des  Auteurs  dramatiques  by  A.  Binet 
and  J.  Passy  in  Rev.  Philos.,  Fevr.  1894,  p.  228.) 

B.  Two  varieties  or  types  of  literary  criticism  which  are 
often  contrasted,  are  judicial  criticism  and  inductive  criticism. 
(See  Moulton,  Archer,  Robertson,  Blass,  Saintsbury.) 

1.  THE  JUDICIAL  METHOD  passes   judgment  on    the    work   of 
literature,  that  is,  evaluates  it  or  appraises  it.     Of  this    class, 
Jeffrey   with    his    famous    "This    will    never    do"    (essay   on 
Wordsworth)  is  a  striking  example. 

2.  IHTDUCTIVE  CRITICISM,    when    employed    in    its    simplicity, 
busies   itself  solely  with   the   collection   and    arrangement    of 
facts.      It   refuses    to    evaluate    or    appraise.     (See   Moulton, 
HowellsvTaine,  Saintsbury.) 

Under  inductive  criticism  we  may  point  out  two  subdivisions. 
(a.)  The  first  occupies  itself  with  the  work  in  hand.  It 
aims  to  examine  the  work  and  in  a  methodical  way  to  describe 
the  contents.  Perhaps  Mr.  Moulton's  method  falls  in  this  divi- 


6  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  1,  F. 

sion.  (If.)  The  second  kind  of  inductive  criticism  sees  in  the 
work  an  expression  of  external  influences,  and  hence  pays  most 
attention  to  the  environment.  Its  aim  is  to  classify  the  work, 
to  place  it  in  its  proper  relation  to  other  works  of  the  same 
kind  and  time.  Taine  and  Sainte-Beuve  may  serve  as  examples. 

C.  Many  other  divisions  of  literary  criticism  may  be  sug- 
gested, some  of  which  are  perhaps  more  philosophical  than 
the  division  into  judicial  and  inductive.  Criticism  may  be 
divided  into  personal  (or  subjective)  criticism,  such  as  we  find 
in  the  writings  of  Henry  James,  and  impersonal  or  objective 
criticism,  such  as  was  advocated  by  £mile  Hennequin  ;  it  may 
be  classed  as  analytic  and  synthetic ;  as  positive  and  negative ; 
as  higher  (when  it  deals  with  writings  as  a  whole),  and  lower 
(when  it  deals  with  isolated  passages);  as  internal  and  external; 
as  static,  dynamic,  and  organic;  as  scientific,  philosophic,  ethical, 
and  aesthetic.  Possibly  no  comprehensive  and  strictly  logical 
classification  has  yet  been  made. 

An  interesting  question  is  whether  various  types  of  criticism 
may  not  be  combined  ;  whether  certain  types  are  not  comple- 
mentary to  one  another.  Thus,  should  not  judicial  criticism 
also  be  inductive  ?  analytical  criticism  also  be  synthetic  ?  (See 
Moulton,  p.  22.) 

Literary  criticism  so  differs  in  different  countries  that  it  is 
possible  to  speak  of  British,  American,  French,  German,  Italian 
and  Russian  criticism.  (See  §  3,  8.) 

On  the  kinds  of  criticism,  see  in  general,  Patin,  Blass,  Elze, 
Urlichs,  Saintsbury. 

/.  Purpose  of  IHerary  criticism.  — The  object  of  criticism 
should  be  very  closely  related  to  its  definition.  As  there  are 
different  opinions  on  the  first  point,  we  may  expect  to  find 
different  opinions  on  the  second.  The  following  are  some 
of  the  objects  which  have  been  advanced  as  proper  to 
criticism. 


*Y.]  RELATION  OF  CRITICISM    TO    CREATION.  7 

(i)  Like  any  other  means  of  obtaining  or  imparting  knowl- 
edge, criticism  is  interesting  for  its  own  sake.  (2)  Since 
criticism  is  a  kind  of  literature,  its  justification  rests  on  the 
same  basis  as  other  literary  forms.  (3)  Criticism  is  a  help  to 
our  appreciation  of  literature.  It  enhances  the  impression  ; 
it  interprets  and  makes  clear  what  is  obscure  in  the  thing 
criticised.  (4)  It  teaches  us  what  in  literature  is  good,  and 
what  is  bad,  and  thus  saves  our  time  and  mental  energy. 
(5)  It  prepares  the  public  for  the  author.  (See  Arnold's  essay, 
On  the  Function  of  Criticism.)  (6)  It  shows  the  author  how  to 
adapt  himself  to  his  public.  (7)  It  regulates  and  disciplines  \ 
literary  taste.  (8)  It  frees  literature  from  the  tyranny  of 
prejudice  or  whim.  (On  this  view  and  the  preceding,  see 
Nisard  and  Dowden.)  (9)  It  destroys  morbidity  in  the  author 
or  the  public.  (10)  It  gives  people  who  have  not  time  to  read 
the  originals  information  about  new  books  and  new  ideas. 

In  connection  with  this  topic  the  question  may  be  raised 
whether  in  criticism  the  writer's  character  is  a  proper  subject 
of  praise  or  blame ;  also,  whether  the  purpose  of  criticism  is  to 
convince  or  to  persuade. 

(See  Villemain,  Mabie,  Bristed,  Lowell,  Saintsbury,  Arnold, 
H.  James,  Stedman,  Archer.) 

//.  Relation  of  criticism  to  creation.  —  A.  It  has  been 
often  maintained  that  criticism  as  a  form  of  intellectual  effort 
is  lower  than  creation.  (See  Arnold,  Shairp,  Macaulay,  Posnett, 
and  Robertson.)  If  this  is  so,  does  the  argument  apply  as 
well  to  inductive  as  to  judicial  criticism  ? 

£.  The  statement  has  also  been  made  that  critics  are 
naturally  hostile  to  authors  and  that  the  history  of  criticism 
has  been  a  history  of  the  triumph  of  the  author  over  the  critic. 
(See  Moulton,  p.  7  ;  Robertson,  p.  142  ;  Birrell.)  Is  such  in 
fact  the  case?  Does  criticism  necessarily  lag  behind  creation 
(Caine,  p.  xxx)  ?  Why  should  it  ?  If  it  does,  is  its  tardiness 


8  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  1,  /•'//. 

irremediable  ?  or  is  it  merely  due  to  vicious  methods  of 
criticism  employed  by  bad  critics?  Is  "the  judicial  attitude 
unreceptive"?  (Moulton,  p.  7.) 

C.  Again,  it  is  sometimes  said  that  criticism  tends  to  crush 
out  originality ;   yet  according  to  Mr.  Howells  (Harper,  June, 
1887)  all  criticism  is  futile  ;   the  literary  movement  is  "never 
stayed  in  the  least  or  arrested  by  criticism."      Which  is  the 
sounder  view? 

D.  Another  theory,  a  theory  for  which  Macaulay  is  often 
given  credit,  is  that  an  age  of  fine  creation  cannot  also  be  an 
age  of  fine  criticism.     (See  Macaulay's  essay  on  Dryden,  and 
compare  Burke's  On  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  p.  21.)     Was 
this  true  of  the  literary  history  of  Greece  and  Rome?     Has  it 
been  true  in  the  history  of  English  literature  ?   of  the  French, 
and  German,  and  Italian  literatures?     A  corollary  is  that  a 

[  good  poet  cannot  be  a  good  critic.  Is  there  anything  in 
the  nature  of  criticism  and  of  creation  to  make  the  two 
incompatible?  Have  both  ever  reached  a  high  degree  of 
excellence  in  the  same  man?  What  shall  be  said  of  Shake- 
speare's critical  powers  (Lewes,  Actors  and  the  Art  of  Acting ; 
Robertson,  p.  14)?  of  Dante's?  of  Goethe's?  of  Schiller's? 
Shenstone  (quoted  by  Robertson,  p.  15)  thought  that  "every 

|  good  poet  includes  a  critic,"  but  he  was  careful  to  add,  "the 
reverse  will  not  hold." 

E.  May   not    criticism    itself   be    creative?      (See    Arnold, 
Robertson,   Shairp,   Mabie.)      May  not   criticism  be   even   an 
advance  upon  the  work  which  is  criticised?     (Wilde,  Posnett, 
H.  James.) 

///.  Qualifications  of  the  critic.  —  Should  the  critic  be  in 
the  main  a  man  of  intellect  or  a  man  of  taste  ?  Ought  he  to 
be  a  specialist  ?  (See  Saintsbury.)  Can  he  be  a  good  critic 
if  he  knows  no  literature  but  that  of  his  own  nation  ?  Should 
he  be  disinterested?  (See  Arnold.)  In  general,  consult 


CANONS   OF  CRITICISM.  9 

Wilkinson,   Jennings's  Curiosities  of  Criticism,   Sainte-Beuve, 
Allen,  Dowden. 

////.  Canons  of  criticism.  —  Under  this  head  the  question 
may  first  be  asked  whether  such  things  as  canons  of  criticism 
exist.  If  they  exist  and  have  validity,  on  what  principles, 
scientific,  philosophic,  psychological,  ethical,  or  aesthetic,  do 
they  rest  ?  Are  they  relative  or  absolute  ?  Are  they  fixed  and  / 
good  for  all  time,  or  do  they  shift  with  the  progress  of 
intelligence  and  change  of  taste  ?  (See  Saintsbury,  Posnett, 
Moulton,  Symonds.)  What  is  the  standard  of  taste  ?  (Begg, 
Hume.)  How  far  is  it  alike  for  all  nations?  How  are  individual 
differences  of  critical  opinion  to  be  accounted  for  and  recon- 
ciled ?  Of  what  value  are  the  classics  as  guides  in  matters  of 
criticism  ?  Are  they  to  be  accepted  as  models  ?  Is  it  possible 
to  deduce  from  them  all  the  canons  of  criticism  ?  (Lewes, 
Principles  of  Success,  p.  in.)  Is  it  possible  for  a  literary 
work  to  violate  the  canons  of  criticism  and  yet  be  a  master- 
piece? What  value  should  be  attached  to  consensus  of  opinion? 
to  the  test  of  time  ? 

Attempts  to  formulate  canons  of  criticism  have  been  made 
by  some  of  the  authors  mentioned  in  §  2.  The  validity  of  such 
canons  may  be  tested,  first,  by  the  success  of  those  who  have 
conformed  to  them ;  and,  secondly,  by  comparison  with  the 
unformulated  rules  that  may  be  gathered  from  the  practice  of 
more  spontaneous,  but  perhaps  none  the  less  admirable,  critics. 

§  2.     REFERENCES. 

AINGER,  A.     Charles  Lamb.     New  York:  1882. 

In  pointing  out  Lamb's  place  as  a  literary  critic  (pp.  168-182), 
the  author  brings  into  relief  some  of  the  fundamental  charac- 
teristics of  criticism,  especially  the  part  played  by  "  the  higher 
imagination." 


10  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

ALLEN,  GRANT.     Fortnightly,  37:  339  Decay  of  Criticism. 

Stimulated  by  the  article  of  M.  Caro  (in  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes, 
i  Fevr.  1882)  on  the  Decay  of  Criticism  in  France,  Mr.  Allen 
looks  about  him  for  the  causes  of  a  similar  decay  in  England. 
What  he  sees,  however,  is  not  retrogression,  but  advance.  While 
the  old  criticism  was  very  bad  indeed,  the  new,  based  on  the 
models  of  Sainte-Beuve  and  Saint-Marc  Girardin,  shows  signs  of 
improvement.  "Just  as  the  critical  impulse  is  dying  out  in 
France,  it  has  begun  to  live  in  England."  Still  there  are 
untoward  influences,  and  they  correspond  in  two  particulars  to 
those  detected  by  M.  Caro  in  France,  namely,  the  rise  of 
journalism  and  the  growth  of  specialization.  (See  infra  under 
CARO.) 

ARNOLD,  M.     Essays  in  Criticism.     Boston:  1869. 

pp.  1—38  On  the  Function  of  Criticism  at  the  Present  Time. 
Perhaps  the  most  important  utterance  upon  criticism  in 
modern  times.  The  value,  practical  as  well  as  theoretical,  of 
the  definition  which  is  its  starting-point  —  "to  see  the  object 
as  in  itself  it  really  is" — cannot  well  be  called  in  question. 
The  greater  part  of  the  essay  is  occupied  with  a  discussion  of 
the  relation  between  critic  and  poet:  The  materials  with  which 
the  poet  works  are  ideas,  the  best  ideas  of  his  time.  He  is 
dependent,  therefore,  upon  the  intellectual  current  of  his  time, 
and  it  is  the  critic's  business  to  see  that  the  current  is  broad, 
and  that  it  moves  in  the  right  direction.  In  the  interest  of  the 
creative  man  the  critic  must  help  the  best  ideas  prevail.  Thus 
the  critic's  task  may  be  summed  up  as  "a  disinterested 
endeavor  to  learn  and  propagate  the  best  that  is  known  and 
thought  in  the  world."  The  essay  has  given  rise  to  a  great 
deal  of  discussion,  the  nature  and  trend  of  which  are  indicated 
by  the  following  questions  :  Is  Arnold  right  in  subordinating 
criticism  to  creation  ?  Is  the  critical  faculty  necessarily  lower 
than  the  inventive  faculty?  If  Arnold  is  using  'creative' 


§2.]  REFERENCES.  11 

in  the  sense  of  'original,'  may  not  the  critic  be  as  creative  as 
the  writer  of  fiction  or  drama  ?  If  poetry  is  a  '  criticism  of 
life '  (see  essay  on  Wordsworth),  is  not  the  poetic  faculty  also 
a  critical  faculty?  Concerning  his  definition  of  criticism,  we 
may  ask  whether,  philosophically  speaking,  it  is  possible  to  see 
anything  as  in  itself  it  really  is.  Things  are  understood  only 
as  they  are  seen  in  their  relations  to  other  things.  More  than 
that,  we  always  see  them  as  they  are  colored  by  our  personal 
views  and  tendencies;  the  same  thing  has  different  meanings 
for  different  persons.  Again,  is  it  best  for  the  critic  to  be 
disinterested?  Is  he  not  likely  to  be  indifferent?  Is  it  not 
better  for  each  critic  to  have  an  interest,  and  allow  one  extreme 
to  offset  the  other?  (Cf.  Goethe's  view  in  Kunst-Aphorismen,  II : 
"  I  am  more  and  more  convinced  that,  when  one  has  to  vent  an 
opinion  on  the  actions  or  on  the  writings  of  others,  unless  this 
be  done  from  a  certain  one-sided  enthusiasm  or  from  a  loving 
interest  in  the  person  and  the  work,  the  result  is  hardly  worth 
gathering  up.")  For  discussion  of  Arnold's  views,  see  Westm., 
80:  468;  No.  Am.  Rev.,  101 :  208;  Century,  14:  184;  No.  Brit. 
Rev.,  42:  158;  Robertson,  Essays,  pp.  42—44,  144—148. 

See  also  Arnold's  article   '  Sainte-Beuve '  in  the  gth  edition 
of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

BEGG,  W.   P.     The  Development  of  Taste.     Glasgow:  1887. 
pp.  140-157  Is  there  a  Standard  of  Taste? 

BERNHEIM,    ERNST.       Lehrbuch    der    historischen    Methods. 
Leipzig:  1889. 

pp.  202-390  Kritik  ;  pp.  395-428  Interpretation. 
A  comprehensive  and  methodical  treatment  of  criticism  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  historical  investigator.  The  task  of 
historical  criticism  is,  positively,  to  pass  judgment  upon  the 
truthfulness  of  the  information  which  has  come  down  from  the 
past,  and  so  to  assign  to  it  its  proper  grade  of  probability; 


12  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

negatively,  to  set  aside  certain  data  as  untrustworthy.  The 
form  which  the  criticism  takes  is  a  judgment  partly  upon  the 
relation  of  the  data  to  the  facts,  partly  upon  the  relation  of  the 
facts  one  to  another.  Judgments  regarding  the  trustworthiness 
of  the  information  as  historical  evidence  make  up  the  lower  or 
external  criticism  (niedere  oder  aussere  Kritik)  ;  the  higher  or 
internal  criticism  (hohere  oder  innere  Kritik)  consists  in  judg- 
ments regarding  the  relation  of  the  evidence  to  the  facts. 

BLAIR,    HUGH.      Lectures    on    Rhetoric   and    Belles    Lettres. 

Philadelphia:  1833. 

A  definition  of  criticism  will  be  found  at  the  beginning  of 
Lecture  3. 

BLASS,  FRIEDR.  Hermeneutik  und  Kritik.  (In  Iwan  Miiller's 
Handbuch  der  klassischen  Alterthumswissenschaft.  Nord- 
lingen :  1886.  Bd.  i,  pp.  127—272.) 

Blass's  chapters  on  hermeneutics  and  criticism,  the  "  metho- 
dology" of  Miiller's  Handbook,  are  intended  as  a  practical 
guide  for  the  investigator  in  classical  philology.  Hermeneutics 
or  interpretation  is  considered  under  the  three  heads,  gram- 
matical, historical,  and  technical.  The  first  is  concerned  with 
matters  of  grammar  (and  rhetoric);  the  second  with  the  kinds, 
stages,  and  limitations  of  literature ;  the  third  with  matters  of 
literary  form.  Criticism  is  looked  upon  as  a  kind  of  judgment. 
In  every  judgment,  says  Blass,  there  is  involved  a  doubt. 
We  raise  the  question  whether  something  is  true,  or  right,  or 
useful,  or  beautiful.  How  is  this  doubt  "  resolved "  (auf- 
gehoben)  ?  By  comparing,  is  the  answer,  the  object  to  be 
judged  with  another  object,  regarding  which  we  are  not  in 
doubt.  If  the  two  harmonize,  there  follows  a  judgment  of 
truth,  or  Tightness,  or  beauty,  as  the  case  may  be.  When  the 
question  is  one  of  Tightness,  or  beauty,  the  object  with  which 
we  make  comparison  is  an  ideal  of  right  or  beauty.  In  philology, 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  13 

there  are  two  kinds  of  criticism  :  historical  and  aesthetic.  The 
latter  is  not  strictly  philological,  but  the  shrewd  philologist  will 
be,  so  Blass  thinks,  auch  in  dieser  Weise  tirtheilsfdhig.  In  his 
treatment  of  the  practical  aspects  of  the  subject,  Blass  dis- 
cusses such  topics  as  the  kinds  of  errors  and  their  origin, 
causes  of  critical  doubt,  conjectural  criticism,  and  criticism  of 
genuineness  (Kritik  der  Echten  und  Unechten). 

BOECKH,  A.  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  philo- 
logischen  Wissenschaften.  Herausg.  von  E.  Bratuschek. 
Leipzig:  1877. 

pp.  169-254  Theorie  der  Kritik. 

See  the  note  on  Blass,  supra.  Interpretation  expounds  the 
object  as  it  is  in  itself,  with  reference  (i)  to  objective  or  (2)  to 
subjective  conditions.  In  the  first  instance  the  interpretation 
may  be  (a)  grammatical,  that  is,  it  may  deal  with  the  meaning 
of  the  word  in  itself ;  or  (b}  historical,  that  is,  it  may  deal  with 
external  relations.  Subjective  interpretation  is  divided  into 
individual  interpretation  and  interpretation  of  the  species  or 
type  (Gattungsinterpretation).  Criticism  differs  from  inter- 
pretation in  that  it  considers  the  object  not  as  it  is  in  itself, 
but  as  it  is  in  its  relations  to  other  objects.  Its  purpose  is  to 
understand  the  relation  rather  than  the  objects  themselves. 
The  kinds  of  criticism  are  the  same  as  the  kinds  of  inter- 
pretation, namely,  grammatical,  historical,  and  individual  criti- 
cism, and  criticism  of  types  (Gattungskritik). 

A  second  edition,  edited  by  R.  Klussmann,  appeared  in  188.6. 

BOURGET,   P.     fitudes  et  Portraits.     2  vols.     Paris:  1889. 

Vol.  i,  pp.  299-306  Reflexions  sur  la  Critique. 

Called  out  by  Caro's  article  on  the  decay  of  modern  criticism. 
(See  below.)  In  a  few  paragraphs  Bourget  reviews  rapidly 
but  suggestively  the  progress  of  modern  critical  writing.  Criti- 
cism,, he  thinks,  is  not  dead,  but  metamorphosed  into  psychology. 


14  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

BRANDES,  GEORG.  Die  Litteratur  des  neunzehnten  Jahr- 
hunderts  in '  ihren  Hauptstromungen.  Uebersetzt  und 
eingeleitet  von  A.  Schodtmann.  5  vols  in  3.  Berlin: 
1872-73. 

Bd-  5>  PP-  35'-373  Sainte-Beuve ;  pp.  374-387  Sainte-Beuve  und 
die  moderne  Kritik. 

Presents  in  clear  and  attractive  style  the  literary  life  of 
Sainte-Beuve  and  his  part  in  the  history  of  the  French  Roman- 
ticists. Sainte-Beuve  reformed  criticism  by  putting  it  on  a 
historical  and  scientific  basis  (p.  379).  See  pp.  386,  387  for  a 
definition  of  criticism  and  an  estimate  of  its  importance. 

BRIM  LEY,  G.  Essays.  Edited  by  W.  G.  Clark.  3d  edition. 
London:  1868. 

Pp.  184-203  Poetry  and  Criticism. 

BRISTED,  C.  A.  Pieces  of  a  broken  down  Critic.  4  vols. 
Baden-Baden:  1858. 

Vol.  4,  p.  34  Purpose  of  Criticism. 

BROCKHAUS'  Conversations-Lexikon.     Article  'Kritik.' 

The  various  kinds  of  criticism  are  enumerated  and  briefly 
defined. 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.    La  Critique  litteVaire.    Part  of  the  article 

'  Critique  '  in  the  Grande  Encyclopedic. 

1  The  article  '  Critique '  in  the  Grande  Encyclopedic  covers 
pp.  409-431.  Omitting  subdivisions  irrelevant  to  our  purpose, 
we  may  divide  it  into  six  parts,  as  follows  :  (i)  Philosophy  by 
L.  Dauriac,  (2)  Philology  by  A.  Waltz,  (3)  Literature  by 
F.  Brunetiere,  (4)  Music  by  R.  Lavoix,  (5)  History  by  A.  Giry, 
(6)  Religious  History  by  M.  Vernes.  Brunetiere's  article 
covers  pp.  411-424.  It  is  divided  into  two  parts,  the  first 
historical,  the  second  systematic.  For  a  notice  of  the  first  part, 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  15 

see  §  5.  The  second  and  systematic  part  treats  first  of  the 
Object  and  Methods  of  Criticism ;  second,  of  the  Function  oT 
Criticism.  The  object  in  criticism  is  threefold,  (i)  to  explain, 
(2)  to  classify,  (3)  to  judge.  By  explanation  is  meant  descrip- 
tion, analysis,  and  comment.  The  critic  must  explain  the  au- 
thor, whose  character  is  not  always  an  analogue  of  his  book, 
but  he  must  not  stop  with  the  author.  Others  have  helped 
write  the  book.  The  author's  contemporaries  are  his  col- 
laborators. Other  books  have  influenced  him.  He  lives  in 
a  particular  moment  or  phase  of  the  evolution  of  the  genre  to 
which  his  work  belongs.  A  part  of  the  explanation,  therefore, 
consists  in  placing  the  work  in  its  milieu,  national  and  interna- 
tional. To  perform  the  work  of  classification  criticism  needs 
sound  principles  of  three  kinds  :  i.  Scientific,  analogous  to  those 
of  natural  history;  2.  Moral,  establishing  an  ethical  hierarchy 
without  identifying  morals  and  art;  3.  Aesthetic,  measuring  the 
work  of  art  by  the  absolute  quantity  that  it  expresses.  Fur- 
nished with  these  principles  criticism,  as  a  mode  of  classifying, 
would  become  scientific.  Finally,  criticism  is  under  obligation 
to  pass  judgment ;  for  a  work  of  art,  while  it  is  a  record  to 
be  explained  and  classified,  is  also  a  poem  or  statue  better  or 
worse  than  some  other  poem  or  statue.  Distinct  from  the  ob- 
ject of  criticism  is  its  function.  According  to  Brunetiere  the 
function  of  criticism  is  to  act  on  public  opinion,  on  authors,  and 
upon  the  general  direction  of  literature  and  art.  By  maintain- 
ing literary  traditions  criticism  perpetuates  from  age  to  age 
the  literary  consciousness  of  the  nation. 

Cf.  in  the  same  work  the  article   by  Alfred  Ernst  on  the 
Aesthetics  of  Literature  (under  Esthe'tique,  p.  409). 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.     Involution  des  Genres  dans  1'histoire 
de  la  litterature.     Tome  icr.     Paris:  1890. 

Pp.  35-278  L'fivolution  de  la  critique. 
In  his  discussion  of  the  work  of  the  principal  French  critics 


16  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

from  du  Bellay  to  Taine,  M.  Brunetiere  considers  the  function 
of  criticism  in  most  of  its  aspects.  See  in  particular  pp.  35,  36, 
on  the  influence  of  criticism  on  literature;  pp.  184—6  on  the 
substitution  of  the  criticism  of  beauties  for  the  criticism  of 
defects;  pp.  195—201  on  dilettanteism  and  individualism  in 
criticism,  and  the  chapters  on  Sainte-Beuve  and  Taine,  passim. 
For  comment  on  the  work,  consult  §  5. 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.     Questions  de  Critique.     Paris:  1889. 
Pp.  297-324  La  critique  scientifique  (on  £.  Hennequin). 

BUCHANAN,  ROBT.     Master-spirits.     London:  1873. 
I.  Criticism  as  one  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

Criticism  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  science,  but  as  an  art  it  is 
susceptible  of  high  cultivation.  The  old  idea  of  criticism  was 
the  application  of  tests  by  which  to  ascertain  the  value  of  the 
work ;  modern  criticism  means  the  impression  produced  on  cer- 
tain minds  by  certain  products. 

BURROUGHS,    J.      Century,    14:  185    Matthew   Arnold's   Criti- 
cism.   (Reprinted  in  Indoor  Studies,  p.  79.    Boston:  1889.) 
The  strength  of  Mr.  Arnold's  criticism  lies  in  his  sincere  ef- 
fort to  grasp  the  totality  of  life  ;  its  ineffectualness  is  due  to 
the  unclassical  age  and  people  with  whom  he  has  to  deal.     An 
interesting    question  is   raised   on    p.    190,    namely,    whether 
Arnold's  criticism  is  in  line  with  the  movement  of  individual- 
ism  which,    in    Mr.    Burroughs's    opinion,    characterizes    the 
literature  of  this  century. 

CAINE,  T.  HALL.     Cobwebs  of  Criticism.     London:  1883. 

A  contribution  to  the  history  of  criticism.  Discussions,  not 
too  profound,  of  critical  theory  are  scattered  through  its  pages. 
See,  for  further  notice,  §  5. 


§  2.]  REFEKENCES.  17 

CAIRO,  EDW.     The  Critical  Philosophy  of  Immanuel  Kant.     2 

vols.     Glasgow:  1889. 

See  vol.  i,  pp.  1-20,  for  a  statement  of  the  meaning  of  criti- 
cism in  the  Kantian  sense. 

CARO,  E.     Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  FeVr.  1882  La  critique  contem- 
poraine  et  les  causes  de  son  affaiblissement. 

The  kinds  of  criticism  are  enumerated,  not  very  logically, 
and  the  methods  employed  by  Villemain,  Nisard,  St.-Marc 
Girardin,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  Taine,  are  briefly  characterized. 
Decadence  in  French  criticism  is  traced  to  three  causes : 
(i)  Absorption  of  literary  talent  in  the  business  of  politics, 
which  gives  rise  to  partisan  hostility  ;  (2)  the  rise  of  journalism 
with  its  attendant  evils  ;  (3)  the  growth  of  specialization.  (See, 
above,  Allen's  Decay  of  Criticism,  and  Bourget's  fitudes  et 
Portraits.) 

COAN,  T.  M.     Lippincott,  13:  355  Critic  and  Artist. 

An  interesting  and  suggestive  paper  discussing  the  attitude 
which  the  critic  should  assume  toward  the  artist.  The  follow- 
ing are  some  of  the  ideas  advanced  by  the  author:  (i)  The 
theory  of  evolution,  by  giving  a  new  aspect  to  everything  in 
art,  has  set  new  tasks  for  the  modern  critic.  His  business  is 
to  see,  not  to  say,  new  things.  (2)  In  a  work  of  art  the  artist 
himself  is  a  chief  object  of  interest.  Knowledge  of  his  person- 
ality is  a  short  cut  to  knowledge  of  the  work.  Still,  from  the 
critical  point  of  view,  the  character  of  the  artist  is  not  a  proper 
subject  for  praise  or  blame.  (3)  The  critic  by  a  methodi- 
cal study  of  himself  should  determine  his  personal  equation, 
and  when  it  is  determined  should  make  allowance  for  it. 
(4)  The  order  of  development  of  the  critical  faculty  is  as  fol- 
lows :  (a)  Naive  admiration ;  (b*)  search  for  truth  ;  (c)  interest 
in  the  personality  of  the  artist. 


18  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

DESCHANEL,  £MILE.     Physiologic  des  ecrivains  et  des  artistes, 

ou  essai  de  critique  naturelle.  Paris:  1864. 
An  extreme  application,  after  Sainte-Beuve  and  Taine,  of 
laws  of  physiology  to  the  science  of  criticism.  The  author 
shows,  by  a  remarkable  assemblage  of  facts  and  illustrations, 
that  it  is  possible  to  determine  by  scrutiny  of  a  given  piece  of 
literature  (i)  the  period  in  which  it  was  written,  (2)  the  cli- 
mate, (3)  the  nationality  of  the  author,  (4)  the  author's  sex, 
(5)  his  age,  (6)  his  temperament,  (7)  his  character,  (8)  his 
profession,  (9)  his  education,  (10)  his  state  of  health. 

DOWDEN,  E.     Fortnightly,  52  :  737  Literary  Criticism  in  France. 
A  careful  analysis  of  the  literary  theories  of  Bourget,  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Nisard,  Taine,  and  fimile  Hennequin.     A  good  intro- 
duction to  the  comparative  study  of  theories. 

DROZ,  £D.     La  critique  litteraire  et  la  science.     Paris:  1893. 

The  purpose  of  this  interesting  paper,  which  was  read  before 
a  body  of  scientists  at  Besanc.on  in  1891,  is  to  show  that  the  sci- 
entific method,  as  understood  by  men  of  letters  (that  is,  as 
misunderstood),  has  not  been  of  much  service  to  modern 
literary  criticism.  The  position  is  supported  by  an  unsparing 
examination  of  the  pretensions  of  Sainte-Beuve,  Taine,  Brune- 
tiere,  and  E\  Hennequin.  The  treatment  is  admirable  in  both 
spirit  and  style,  and  especially  valuable  as  showing  how  the 
'  scientific '  views  of  the  greatest  modern  French  critics  strike 
a  man  of  science. 

DRYDEN,  J.     Works.     Edited  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.     London  : 
1808. 

DRYDEN,  J.    Dramatic  Works.     Edited  by  G.  Saintsbury.    Edin- 
•      burgh:  1882. 

In  the  Preface  to  the  State  of  Innocence  Dryden  defines  criti- 
cism as  '  a  standard  of  judgment  whose  purpose  is  to  enable  us 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  19 

to  observe  those  excellencies  which  should  delight  a  reasonable 
reader.'  For  other  studies  of  the  nature  and  province  of  criti-v 
cism,  consult  the  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy,  the  Essay  on 
Satire,  the  Defense  of  Epilogue,  the  Essay  on  Translation,  the 
Parallel  between  Poetry  and  Painting,  the  Introduction  to 
Don  Sebastian,  the  Essay  on  Heroic  Plays,  and  in  general 
the  prefatory  essays  of  the  plays.  (See  Wylie's  Evolution  of 
English  Criticism.) 

ELIOT,    GEORGE.       Essays    and    Leaves   from    a    Note- Book. 

Edinburgh:  1885. 

A  brief  essay,  entitled  Judgments  on  Authors,  begins  on 
p.  294.  George  Eliot  would  make  the  test  of  good  writing  '  the 
author's  contribution  to  the  spiritual  wealth  of  mankind.' 

ELZE,  KARL.      Grundriss  der  englischen  Philologie.      2d  ed. 
Halle:  1889. 
Pp.  36-99. 

Elze  agrees  with  Boeckh  in  making  criticism  the  art  or  the- 
ory of  judgments.  He  adopts  (p.  170)  Boeckh's  definition  of 
hermeneutics  and  criticism.  The  divisions  of  hermeneutics  are 
(i)  lexicological,  (2)  grammatical,  (3)  stylistic,  and  (4)  metri- 
cal exposition,  and  (5)  exposition  of  the  meaning  or  content 
(inhaltliche  Exposition).  Criticism  he  divides  into  textual  criti- 
cism and  aesthetic  criticism.  Determination  of  the  text  rests 
upon  the  postulate  that  every  author  has  a  lexicological,  gram- 
matical, stylistic,  and  metrical  individuality,  in  addition  to  the 
individuality  of  his  ideas.  Aesthetic  criticism  judges  a  work  in 
its  relation  to  other  works  by  comparing  it  with  literature  of  the 
same  kind,  and  on  the  basis  of  such  judgment  and  comparison 
assigns  it  to  its  proper  place  in  literary  history.  Its  value  as 
member  of  a  class  is  determined  by  asking  how  far  it  cor- 
responds to  the  canon  or  class-ideal  (Gattungsideal,  cf.  Boeckh's 
Kunstregel)  laid  down  by  aesthetics. 


20  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

EMERSON,  R.  W.  Complete  works.  12  vols.  Boston:  1893. 
i :  40  Natural  History  of  Intellect  (Law  of  Criticism :  "  Every 
scripture  is  to  be  interpreted  in  the  same  spirit  which  gave  it 
forth");  2:  252  The  Over-Soul  ("The  supreme  critic  ...  is  that 
Unity,  that  Over-Soul,  within  which  every  man's  particular  being 
is  contained  and  made  one  with  all  others"):  3:  61  Experience 
(The  futility  of  criticism) ;  243-5  New  England  Reformers 
(Outbreak  of  critical  spirit  in  New  England);  8:  58  Poetry  and 
Imagination  ("  The  critic  ...  is  a  failed  poet  "). 

FULLER,  S.  MARGARET.  Papers  on  Literature  and  Art.  New 
York:  1848.  Pt.  i,  pp.  1-9  A  short  essay  on  critics, 
pp.  11-14  A  Dialogue. 

Two  sketchy  but  suggestive  articles  touching  the  relation  of 
criticism  to  creation.  The  writer  is  sure  that  criticism  is  a 
legitimate  thing,  but  is  not  clear  as  to  its  function.  "The 
critic  is  the  historian  who  records  the  order  of  creation." 
"  The  use  of  criticism  in  periodical  writing  is  to  sift,  not  to 
stamp  a  work." 

HARDY,  A.  S.     Andover  Rev.,  14:  522  Letters  and  Life. 

Maintains  that  each  critic  is  entitled  to  his  independent  and 
personal  judgment,  and  that  the  value  of  his  criticism  for  us 
depends  on  our  knowledge  of  the  critic  and  of  his  point  of 
view. 

HARRIS,  JAS.     Philological  Inquiries.     2  vols.     London:  1781. 

(Vols.  IV  and  V  of  the  Miscellanies.) 

One  of  the  earliest  attempts  by  an  Englishman  to  treat  criti- 
cism in  a  scientific  manner.  The  work  is  in  three  parts.  The 
first  is  on  the  rise,  nature,  and  kinds  of  criticism ;  the  second 
consists  of  illustrations  of  critical  principles  as  they  appear  in 
the  writings  of  distinguished  authors,  ancient  and  modern  ;  the 
third  is  an  essay  on  the  taste  and  literature  of  the  middle  ages. 
On  p.  7  criticism  is  defined  as  "  a  deep  and  philosophical 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  21 

search  into  the  primary  laws  of  good  writing,  as  far  as  they 
could  be  collected  from  the  most  approved  performances." 
Critics  are  characterized  (p.  38)  as  "  a  sort  of  masters  of  the 
ceremony  in  the  court  of  letters."  They  are  divided  into 
philosophical,  historical,  and  corrective  critics. 

HENNEQUIN,  &MILE.     La  Critique  scientifique.     Paris:  1888. 

An  attempt,  by  a  follower  of  Herbert  Spencer,  to  put  criti- 
cism upon  a  scientific  basis.  Hennequin's  method,  which  he 
terms  Esthopsychologie,  is  in  some  respects  similar  to  that  of 
Taine.  It  differs  from  Taine's  in  attaching  less  importance  to 
the  race,  and  in  throwing  emphasis  upon  the  individuality  of 
the  author  and  his  power  to  create  an  environment  for  himself. 
The  purpose  of  criticism  is  not  to  evaluate  the  work  of  art,  nor 
yet  to  determine  the  means  by  which  it  is  produced,  but 
to  show  the  relation  of  the  work  to  the  social  and  psycho- 
logical characteristics  of  the  artist  whom  it  reveals.  See 
review  by  L.  Arreat  in  Rev.  Philos.,  27:83;  by  F.  Brunetiere 
in  Rev.  d.  D.  Monties,  i  Juillet,  1888,  p.  213;  and  by  Dowden  in 
Fortnightly,  52:  752;  and  the  passing  notice  by  J.  A.  Symonds 
in  Fortnightly,  52:  774:  "  His  method  of  criticism  may  be  de- 
fined as  the  science  of  the  work  of  art  regarded  as  a  sign." 

HOWELLS,  W.  D.  Editor's  Study.  Harper's  Mag.,  72:321, 
and  each  number  thereafter  to  84:  643.  (The  articles  deal- 
ing with  the  theory  of  criticism  are  reprinted  in  Criticism 
and  Fiction.  New  York:  1891.) 

The  business  of  criticism  is  to  observe  and  register.  The 
test  of  any  work  of  the  imagination  is,  first  of  all,  "  Is  it  true  — 
true  to  the  motives,  the  impulses,  the  principles  that  shape  the 
life  of  actual  men  and  women  ?  "  Criticism,  as  ordinarily  prac- 
ticed, has  no  effect  on  the  movements  of  literature.  For  com- 
ments on  Mr.  Howells's  views,  see  Academy,  40:  209;  Atlantic^ 
68:  566. 


22  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

HUME,  D.  Essays  and  Treatises  on  Several  Subjects.  2  vols. 
London:  1768. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  255-281  Of  the  Standard  of  Taste. 

HUNT,  T.  W.     N.  Princ.  Rev.  4:  75  Literary  Criticism. 

A  discussion,  mainly  of  Arnold's  essay  On  the  Function  of 
Criticism. 

JAMES,  HENRY,  A.  LANG,  and  E.  GOSSE.  New  Review,  4:  398 
The  Science  of  Criticism. 

Intended  for  the  readers  of  a  popular  magazine,  these  enter- 
taining papers  do  not  go  very  deeply  into  the  subject.  Henry 
James,  in  opening,  contrasts  French  criticism  with  the  criticism 
of  England,  much  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  English.  Among 
the  writers  of  Paris  criticism  is  a  fine  art ;  the  critics  disdain  to 
touch  anything  except  books  of  the  higher  class.  In  England 
they  do  these  things  differently.  Mr.  James  then  goes  on  to 
consider  the  function,  or  '  programme,'  of  the  good  critic,  which 
he  thus  characterizes :  It  is  "  to  lend  himself,  to  project  him- 
self and  steep  himself,  to  feel  and  feel  until  he  understands, 
and  to  understand  so  well  that  he  can  say,  to  have  perception 
at  the  pitch  of-  passion  and  expression  in  the  form  of  talent,  to 
be  infinitely  curious  and  incorrigibly  patient,  with  the  intensely 
fixed  idea  of  turning  character  and  history  and  genius  inside 
out."  An  interesting  comparison  is  made  between  critic  and 
novelist.  The  critic  deals  with  the  swarm  of  authors,  "the 
clamorous  children  of  history,"  as  the  novelist  deals  with  char- 
acters, but  his  task  is  harder  because  he  cannot  invent  and 
select  — an  opinion  which  gives  a  new  turn  to  the  old  question 
of  the  superiority  of  creation  to  criticism. 

The  article  is  reprinted,  with  a  few  curious  changes,  in  the 
author's  Essays  in  London  (New  York:  1893),  p.  259. 

According  to  Andrew  Lang,  the  only  kind  of  criticism  worth 
reading  or  writing  is  "  that  which  narrates  the  adventures  of  an 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  23 

ingenious  and  educated  mind  in  contact  with  masterpieces." 
Its  value  for  us  who  read  it  is  that  it  gives  acquaintance  with 
the  experiences  of  another  in  the  same  literary  world  as  our- 
selves. At  its  best,  however,  criticism  is  a  sorry  business,  and 
in  the  world  of  letters  is  likely  to  do  more  harm  than  good. 

Edmund  Gosse  takes  a  more  hopeful  view.  He  distinguishes 
two  kinds  of  criticism.  The  first  is  impersonal  and  uncompara- 
tive,  merely  a  record  of  books  as  they  are  issued ;  the  second, 
however,  is  comparative  and  composite,  and  in  value  falls  but 
little  below  creative  work.  The  function  of  the  critic  is  not  to 
praise  or  to  blame,  but  to  analyze.  His  necessary  qualifica- 
tions are  intelligence,  sympathy,  and  personality. 

JOUBERT,  J.     Pensees.     2  vols.     Paris:  1880. 

See  vol.  2,  pp.  231,  326,  327,  for  epigrammatic  utterances 
upon  criticism  and  critics.  Joubert's  definition  of  criticism 
occurs  on  p.  327  :  "La  critique  est  un  exercice  methodique  du 
discernement." 

KAMES,  HENRY   HOME,  LORD.     The    Elements  of    Criticism. 
New  York:  1838. 

Introduction. 

Criticism  is  a  "  regular  science  governed  by  just  principles." 
These  principles  are  valid  so  far  as  they  agree  with  human 
nature. 

KRANTZ,  E".     Essai sur  I'esthetique  de  Descartes.     Paris:  1882. 
See  pp.  1-6  for  the  relation  of  criticism  to  the  idea  of  the 
beautiful  and  to  movements  in  literature. 

LESSING,  G.  E.     Dramatic  Notes  (Bonn  Libr.).    London:  1889. 
See  Nos.  101-4  f°r  brief  but  suggestive  remarks  on  the  value 
and  function  of  criticism. 

LEWES,  G.  H.     Principles  of  Success  in  Literature.      2d  ed. 

Boston:  1892. 
See  esp.  Chap.  I,  and  pp.  110—119. 


24  LITERARY   CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

LIEBER,  F.  Legal  and  Political  Hermeneutics.  Boston:  1839. 
Although  the  author  writes  from  the  legal  and  political  point 
of  view,  the  fundamental  principles  from  which  he  starts,  and 
the  analysis  which  he  makes  of  the  subject,  may  be  applied  to 
every  field  of  thought.  Beginning  with  a  discussion  of  the 
meaning  of  words,  and  the  causes  of  ambiguity  in  human 
speech,  he  defines  Interpretation,  gives  a  classification  of  it, 
and  expounds  its  principles  at  length. 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     Prose  Works.     6  vols.     Boston:  1890. 

Lowell's  enunciations  on  criticism  are  brief  but  always  char- 
acteristic. The  following  references  indicate  a  few  of  the  best : 
1:354  Emerson  the  Lecturer  (on  Emerson's  criticism);  369 
Thoreau  (on  the  inadequacy  of  Thoreau's  criticism);  3:  28-35 

'  Shakespeare  Once  More  (Need  of  sympathy  plus  fixed  princi- 

.  pies;  Greek  standards  still  prevail;  55  comparison  futile  in 
criticism;  67  criticism  destructive  and  criticism  productive); 
114  Dryden  (Duty  of  the  critic  to  look  on  all  sides;  140  "the 

I  higher  wisdom  of  criticism  lies  in  the  capacity  to  admire"); 
332  Chaucer  (Criticism  of  parts  misleading  ;  "criticism  cleaves 
to  the  teleological  argument");  4:  355  Wordsworth  (Necessary 
to  consider  failures  and  defects);  6:  63  Fielding  (No  recog- 
nized standard  in  criticism);  71-2  Coleridge  (Coleridge's 
method  of  criticism);  121-3  Don  Quixote  (Constructive  criti- 

>  cism,  "  He  reads  most  wisely  who  thinks  everything  into  a  book 

1  that  it  is  capable  of  holding  "). 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     N.  A.  Rev.,  66:  358  Literary  Criticism. 

As  introduction  to  a  review  of  Browning,  Lowell  reads  the 
critics  a  lesson  on  their  dullness  and  incapacity,  and  lays  down 
the  principles  by  which  they  should  be  guided. 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     Century,  February,  1894  Criticism  and  Culture. 

In  this  posthumous  essay  Lowell  takes  the  position  that  the 

object  of  criticism  is  not  to  criticise  (i.e.,  to  judge),  but  to 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  25 

understand.     The  critic  should  look  for  the  strong  rather  than 
for  the  weak  points  of  the  work. 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     Letters.     Ed.  by  C.  E.  Norton.     2  vols.     New 

York:  1893. 

The  occasional  brief  references  to  critics  and  criticism  may 
be  traced  by  means  of  the  index.  Of  especial  interest,  as  bear- 
ing on  the  question  of  criticism  and  creation,  is  Lowell's  remark 
(vol.  II,  p.  62)  regarding  his  criticism  of  himself:  "I  believe 
no  criticism  has  ever  been  made  on  what  I  write  (I  mean  no 
just  one)  that  I  had  not  made  before,  and  let  slip  through  my 
fingers." 

MABIE,  H.  W.     Short  Studies  in  Literature.     New  York:  1891. 
See  p.  174  for  an  admirable  little  essay  on  the  origin,  devel- 
opment, and  sources  of  criticism. 

MABIE,  H.  W.  Andover  Rev.,  15:  583  Significance  of  Modern 
Criticism.  (Reprinted  in  Essays  in  Literary  Interpre- 
tation. New  York:  1892.) 

Reviewing  the  development  of  modern  criticism,  the  writer 
shows  that  through  Herder,  Goethe,  Sainte-Beuve,  Coleridge, 
Arnold,  Emerson,  and  others,  a  new  form  of  literature  has  come 
into  existence,  perfectly  adapted  to  the  intellectual  methods  and 
tendencies  of  the  age.  In  this  new  field  the  creative  impulse, 
following  the  scientific  method,  but  in  the  truest  literary  spirit, 
works  with  perfect  freedom.  "  Criticism  discloses  the  law  and 
the  fact  of  art  and  life  as  these  final  realities  are  revealed 
through  literature." 

MACAULAY,  T.  B.     Essays,  Critical  and  Miscellaneous.     New 

York:  1861. 

See  the  essay  on  Dryden  for  Macaulay's  theory  regarding  the 
relation  of  criticism  and  the  creative  imagination,  and  the  essay 
on  the  Athenian  Orators  for  brief  notes  on  the  critics  of  antiquity. 


26  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

MCLAUGHLIN,    EDW.    T.      Literary    Criticism    for    Students, 

Selected  from  English  Essays.  New  York:  1893. 
Selections  from  Sidney,  Jonson,  Dryden,  Addison,  Swift, 
Johnson,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Lamb,  De  Quincey,  Carlyle, 
Arnold,  Lowell,  Ruskin,  Hutton,  and  Pater;  with  an  introduc- 
tion not  so  much  on  criticism  as  on  methods  of  studying  litera- 
ture. The  author  has  little  sympathy  for  scientific  criticism. 
"  'Laboratory  work'  in  literature  may  be  deferred  until  scien- 
tists introduce  literary  methods  into  the  laboratory."  Literature 
will  never  "  yield  its  best  unless  we  approach  it  in  a  spirit  not 
of  fact  but  of  sensibility."  Our  first  aim,  therefore,  should 
be  to  acquire  the  art  of  sympathy.  This  can  be  done  by  mus- 
ing, at  odd  times,  upon  some  poem  that  pleases,  and  asking 
ourselves  such  questions  as,  What  suggestion  can  we  note  of 
this  or  that  taste  or  opinion  in  the  author  ?  In  what  lines  does 
his  heightened  style  appear  at  its  best  ?  When  is  he  most  happy 
in  fancy,  or  in  cadence  ?  Later,  a  wider  and  more  philosophical 
study,  as  of  literary  development  and  biography,  is,  for  some, 
valuable  and  interesting,  provided  they  can  avoid  "  the  old 
danger  of  mechanical  and  harshly  intellectualized  study." 
"  The  most  profitable  criticism  is  that  broad  and  philosophical 
general  discussion  which  is  illustrated  by  such  authors  as  Coler- 
idge or  Arnold."  The  function  of  such  criticism  is  to  bring  us 
in  contact  with  "a  more  theoretical  and  aesthetic  range  of 
ideas,"  and  so  "to  widen  our  intellectual  and  artistic  world." 

MACMILLAN,  53:  278  Some  Random  Reflections  on  Criticism. 
Raises  the  question  whether  a  knowledge  of  the  familiar  life 
of  the  author  enables  us  better  to  criticise  his  writings. 

MACMILLAN,  61:  73  Principles  and  Practice  of  Criticism. 

Because  there  are  certain  forms  of  beauty  for  the  appreciation 
of  which  it  is  not  possible  to  give  intelligible  reasons,  it  is  hope- 
less to  expect  that  a  general  canon  of  criticism  will  ever  be  framed. 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  27 

MALLET,  L' ABBE.  Le  Critique.  (In  Encyclopedic  Me'thodique.) 
A  brief  and  formal  division  of  the  subject.  The  name  critic 
is  by  common  use  applied  to  six  classes  of  writers :  (i)  Those 
who  busy  themselves  in  discriminating  between  authors  and  in 
judging  of  their  styles  and  deserts ;  (2)  those  who  clear  up  ob- 
scure points  in  history;  (3)  those  who  collate  and  edit  ancient 
manuscripts ;  (4)  those  who  write  historical  and  philological 
treatises;  (5)  those  who  prepare  bibliographies  or  catalogues 
raisonnes ;  (6)  those  who  write  commentaries  on  ancient  authors. 

MARMONTEL,  J.  F.    La  Critique.    (In  Encyclope'die  Methodique. 
The  same  article  will  be  found  in  his  Elements  de  Litte'ra- 
ture.     3  vols.     Paris:  1846.     T.  I,  pp.  344-367.) 
The  articles  of  Mallet  and  Marmontel  are  chiefly  of  interest 
as  showing  the  point  of  view  of  the   French  Encyclopedists. 
The  essay  of  Marmontel  is  of  considerable  length.     He  takes 
a  broad  view  of  criticism,  considering  it,  first,  as  the  study  to 
which  we  owe  the  restoration  of  ancient  literature  ;  second,  as  the 
illuminating  examination  and  equitable  judgment  of  human  pro- 
ductions, whether  in  science,  the  liberal  arts,  or  the  mechanic  arts. 

MAURICE,  F.  D.     Friendship  of  Books.     London:  1880. 

P.  354  Critics. 

The  central  thought  of  the  chapter  is  that  true  criticism  aims 
to  discover  the  things  which  are  true  and  abiding.  (Cf.  Sy- 
monds.)  Historical  criticism  should  not  judge  other  times  by 
the  standard  of  our  own,  but  should  try  to  see  ages  and  men 
just  as  they  were. 

MOULTON,  R.  G.  Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic  Artist.  A  pop- 
ular Illustration  of  the  Principles  of  Scientific  Criticism. 
2d  ed.  Oxford:  1888. 

Pp.  1-40  Literary  Criticism  as  an  Inductive  Science,  pp.  265-331 
Dramatic  Criticism  as  an  Inductive  Science. 

The  author's  avowed  purpose  is  to  establish  literary  criticism 


28  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

on  a  scientific  basis.  In  the  development  of  science  there  are 
three  stages:  (i)  The  observation  of  subject-matter;  (2)  an- 
alysis and  classification ;  (3)  systematization.  The  science  of 
literary  criticism  is  still  in  the  second  stage.  In  time  it  will 
pass  into  the  third,  and  then  critics  will  be  able  to  explain  the 
modus  operandi  of  literary  production,  and  show  how  different 
classes  of  writing  produce  their  different  effects.  At  present 
such  explanation  is  mostly  of  a  speculative  character.  All  that 
the  critics  of  to-day  can  hope  to  do  is  to  classify  their  observa- 
tions (pp.  266,  267).  Such  criticism  should  be  called  inductive, 
induction  being  the  universal  scientific  method.  It  must  be 
distinguished  from  judicial  criticism.  Inductive  criticism  in- 
quires what  is  ;  judicial  criticism  inquires  what  ought  to  be. 
Judicial  criticism  is  outside  science  altogether.  It  belongs  to 
the  creative  side  of  literature  (pp.  21,  22),  being  the  expression 
of  individual  taste.  Inductive  criticism  rests  upon  four  axioms  : 

(1)  interpretation  in  literature  is  of  the  nature  of  a  scientific 
hypothesis,  the  truth  of  which  is  tested  by  the  degree  of  com- 
pleteness  with    which    it    explains    the    details   of   the  work; 

(2)  the  function  of  criticism  is  to  distinguish  literary  species  ; 

(3)  art  is  a  part  of  nature  (and  hence  may  be  treated  scien- 
tifically like  any  other  natural  object);   (4)  literature  is  a  thing 
of  development  (hence  must  always  be  far  ahead  of  criticism 
and  analysis).     The  inductive  method  besides  having  a  scien- 
tific interest  assists  more  than  any  other  kind  of  treatment  to 
enlarge  our  appreciation  of  the  author. 

Prof.  Moulton  tests  his  method  by  applying  it,  with  great 
wealth  of  detail  and  aptness  of  illustration,  to  twelve  plays  of 
Shakespeare.  It  will  repay  the  student,  while  he  reads  the 
studies,  to  observe  whether  the  author  does  not  allow  himself 
at  times  to  use  criticism  of  a  judicial  character.  He  may,  also, 
ask  himself  such  questions  as  these  :  Are  judicial  and  inductive 
criticism  mutually  exclusive  ?  Is  not  a  kind  of  criticism  possi- 
ble which  shall  reconcile  the  claims  of  both  judge  and  investi- 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  29 

gator?  Is  the  inductive  criticism  real  science  or  pseudo- 
science  ?  Does  Prof.  Moulton  understand  the  true  relation 
of  art  to  nature  when  he  says  that  art  is  a  part  of  nature  ? 
(Cf.  Goethe's  saying  that  art  is  called  art  because  it  is  not 
nature,  and  see  Bosanquet,  History  of  Aesthetic,  pp.  3,  4.) 
For  comments  on  Prof.  Moulton's  theories  see  Macmillan 
54:  45  Criticism  as  an  Inductive  Science,  by  Wm.  Archer; 
Nation  41:  201  A  New  Inductive  Science,  by  G.  E.  Wood- 
berry;  and  J.  M.  Robertson's  Essays  towards  a  Critical 
Method,  pp.  46-65,  77-9,  83. 

NISARD,    D.      Histoire   de    la   litterature   franchise.      4   vols. 

Paris:   1844-49. 

In  vol.  I,  pp.  1—41,  this  eminent  historian  of  literature  sets 
forth  the  principles  which  have  guided  him  in  the  composition 
of  the  work.  The  aim  of  criticism  is  "  to  regulate  our  intel- 
lectual pleasures,  to  free  literature  from  the  tyranny  of  the 
notion  that  there  is  no  disputing  about  tastes,  to  constitute  an 
exact  science,  intent  rather  on  guiding  than  gratifying  the 
mind."  M.  Nisard  applies  to  each  work  a  threefold  test : 
(i)  The  ideal  of  the  nation,  that  is,  the  national  type  of  lit- 
erature ;  (2)  the  ideal  of  the  language  ;  (3)  the  ideal  of  human- 
ity. See  Dowden's  article,  Fortnightly,  52 :  744. 

NISARD,  D.     Eludes  de  critique  litteraire.     Paris:  1858. 

Discussing  the  critical  methods  of  jSt.-Marc  Girardin,  M. 
Nisard  finds  occasion  to  distinguish  (pp.  147-150)  four  spe- 
cies of  criticism,  as  follows:  (i)  A  kind  of  general  history 
in  which  authors  are  the  heroes.  Of  this  species  the  writ- 
ings of  Villemain  are  examples.  (2)  A  species  which  is  to  the 
first  what  memoirs  are  to  histories.  Each  author  is  looked 
upon  as  a  type,  and  the  aim  of  the  critic  is  to  present  a  series 
of  portraits.  (3)  A  treatise,  the  object  of  which  is  to  regulate 
intellectual  pleasures,  and  deliver  works  from  the  tyranny  of 


30  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

chacun  son  gout.  This,  M.  Nisard  hints,  is  the  method  which 
he  himself  endeavors  to  put  in  practice.  (4)  Attempts  to  draw 
from  literature  practical  instruction  and  lessons  in  morals. 

PAGE,  G.  H.      Westm.  Rev.,  139:  646  Personality  in  Art. 

The  writer  seeks  to  establish  four  propositions:  (i)  A  critic 
should  distinguish  a  writer's  method,  his  creative  power,  and 
his  personality ;  (2)  the  individuality  of  the  writer  is  his  diver- 
gence from  the  typical  man ;  (3)  the  personality  of  the  writer  may 
appear  in  his  work  both  unconsciously  and  self-consciously ; 
(4)  the  writer  may  be  held  accountable  for  the  effect  pro- 
duced by  his  personality. 

PATER,  W.     Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance.     Lon- 
don: 1873. 

Preface. 

Approves  of  Arnold's  definition  of  criticism.  The  first  step 
in  aesthetic  criticism  is  to  realize  one's  own  impressions  clearly. 

PATIN,  H.  J.  G.     fitudes  sur  les  tragiques  grecs. 

Vol.  II,  p.  415  Kinds  of  Critical  Judgments. 

Critical  judgments  are  of  the  following  kinds  or  stages : 
(i)  Nai've  feeling;  (2)  reflection  directed  towards  beauties  and 
faults ;  (3)  theories  drawn  (a)  from  experience,  (b)  from  a 
speculative  view  of  the  means  and  end  of  art.  Criticism  may 
take  the  form  of  (i)  textual  criticism  ;  (2)  historic  research 
directed  upon  writings  or  writers. 

PAUL,   H.     Grundriss   der   germanischen  Philologie.     Strass- 
burg:  1889. 

i.  Lief.,  III.  Abschn.,  pp.  152-237  Methodenlehre. 
Every  student  of  criticism,  whether  he  be  a  philologist  or  not, 
should  have  some  acquaintance  with  the  methods  of  research 
which  philologists  pursue.     To  such    knowledge  there  is    no 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  31 

better  guide  than  the  methodology  of  this  monumental  work. 
The  treatise  comprises  four  divisions:  (i)  General  Considera- 
tions, including  such  subjects  as  Sources,  Inferences  from 
Data,  the  Comparative  Method,  etc.;  (2)  Interpretation  (p.  170); 

(3)  Textual   Criticism   (p.    176);    (4)   Criticism   of    Evidences 
(p.  188);    (5)   History  of  Language   (p.  192);    (6)   History  of 
Literature.     Perhaps  the  part  of  most  interest  to  the  non-tech- 
nical reader  is  that  on  the  history  of  literature.     Paul  holds 
that  the  business  of  the  historian  of  literature  is  not  so  much 
to  pass  a  judgment  for  which  he  can  claim  universal  validity, 
as  to  search  for  the  aesthetic   impulse   in   writer  and  public 
through  which  the  work  has  arisen  and  has  been  effective.     To 
accomplish  this  end  the  critic  should  study  the  impression 
which  the  work  makes  on  him  and  others  of  his  time,  and  also 
the  impression  which  it  made  on  the  contemporaries  of  the 
author.     Further,  he  should  compare  the  effect  of  this  work 
with  that  of  preceding  works,  seeking  to  determine  the  epoch 
of  taste  to^  which  it  belongs.     If,  after  such  a  study  has  been 
made,  he  passes  judgment  upon  the  work,  his  evaluation  will 
rest  upon  a  broad,  empirical  basis,  and  be  susceptible  of  his- 
torical verification. 

PERRY,  T.  S.     English  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
New  York:  1883. 

Pp.  162-174  Addison's  influence  upon  English  criticism. 

A  scholarly  and  spirited  treatment  of  an  important  force  in 
English  criticism. 

POPE,  A.     Essay  on  Criticism. 

Regarded  as  a  treatise  on  criticism,  not  as  an  ars  poetica, 
Pope's  essay  discusses  (i)  the  formation  of  a  critical  judgment ; 
(2)  the  faults  of  critics ;  (3)  the  qualifications  of  a  good  critic ; 

(4)  the  history  of  criticism. 


32  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

PORTER,  NOAH.     Books  and  Reading.     New  York:  1876. 

Chap.  17,  The  Criticism  and  History  of  Literature,  and 
Chap.  1 8,  The  Criticism  of  English  Literature,  are  reprinted 
from  New  Englander,  29:  295,  where  they  appeared  under  the 
title  The  New  Criticism.  This  new  criticism  is  said  to  be  of 
German  origin,  and  its  characteristics  are  given  as  (i)  a  more 
enlarged  and  profound  conception  of  literature  ;  (2)  a  catholic 
and  liberal  spirit ;  (3)  more  philosophical  methods  ;  (4)  a  more 
generous  and  genial  attitude  ;  (5)  interpretation  of  the  author 
by  means  of  his  times ;  (6)  interpretation  of  the  times  of  an 
author  by  means  of  his  works. 

POSNETT,  H.  M.     Comparative  Literature.     London:  1886. 
Pp.  177-9. 

Looking  at  literature  from  a  strictly  scientific  point  of  view, 
Professor  Posnett  has  no  hesitation  in  ranking  criticism  as  supe- 
rior, in  important  respects,  to  artistic  creation.  "  The  true  glim- 
merings of  human  divinity  are  visible,  not  in  the  creation  of  the 
artist,  but  in  the  reflection  of  the  critic."  The  artist,  dwelling 
in  his  little  world  of  imagination,  working  for  the  most  part 
blindly,  and  unconsciously,  limited  by  particular  conditions  of 
space  and  time,  of  current  language  and  thought,  lives  "  a  life 
of  limitation  fancied  to  be  limitless.  If  he  should  know  and 
feel  his  limits,  if  he  should  eat  of  the  fatal  tree  of  science  and 
his  eyes  be  opened,  the  ideas  he  expresses  are  likely  to  be 
revealed  ephemeral  in  their  essence,  and  his  hands  are  apt  to 
lose  their  cunning  in  a  craft  that  has  lost  its  divinity."  The 
critic,  on  the  other  hand,  by  comparing  and  contrasting  diver- 
gent social  types  attains  to  a  scientific  freedom  of  treatment 
both  in  idea  and  language.  He  loses  in  enthusiasm  but  he 
gains  in  range  and  quality  of  knowledge.  He  pierces  through 
the  veil  of  appearances,  and  catches  a  glimpse  of  the  light 
which  the  artist  can  only  imagine. 


§  2.J  REFERENCES.  33 

RENAN,  J.   E.     Studies   of    Religious    History  and   Criticism. 
Trans,  by  O.  B.  Frothingham.     New  York:  1864. 

Pp.  39-43,  215-262,  and  passim. 

Detached  utterances  upon  criticism  will  be  found  scattered 
through  these  brilliant  and  attractive  studies.  From  the  sug- 
gestive ideas  which  the  author  throws  out  may  be  selected  the 
following  :  "  Each  order  of  greatness  has  its  own  eminence  and 
should  not  be  contrasted  with  another  "  (p.  40).  ".  .  .  That  deli- 
cate feeling  for  shades  of  thought  which  we  call  criticism,  with- 
out which  there  is  no  insight  into  the  past  and  consequently 
no  extended  understanding  of  human  affairs.  It  is  surprising 
how  destitute  the  English  in  general  are  of  that  gift  of  histori- 
cal intuition,  so  richly  bestowed  on  Germany,  so  largely  pos- 
sessed by  some  minds  in  France,  provided  the  matter  in  hand 
does  not  involve  an  antiquity  too  remote,  or  an  intellectual 
state  differing  too  much  from  our  own"  (p.  310).  (Is  this  just 
to  English  critics?  Cf.  Arnold's  Lectures  on  Translating 
Homer,  in  Essays  in  Criticism :  "  Almost  the  last  thing  for 
which  one  would  come  to  English  literature  is  just  that  very 
thing  which  now  Europe  most  desires  —  criticism.")  "The 
critical  sense  is  not  inoculated  in  an  hour ;  he  who  has  not  cul- 
tivated it  by  a  long  scientific  and  intellectual  discipline  will 
always  find  adverse  arguments  to  oppose  to  the  more  delicate 
intuitions"  (p.  217).  "Perhaps  our  age  has  overworked  the 
term  spontaneity  in  explaining  phenomena  which  neither  the 
experience  of  the  present  nor  the  testimonies  of  history  will 
enable  us  to  comprehend ;  .  .  .  the  spontaneous  is  perhaps 
simply  the  obscure "  (p.  262).  "  Criticism  displaces  admira- 
tion, but  does  not  destroy  it "  (p.  263). 

ROBERTSON,  J.  M.     Essays  towards  a  Critical  Method.     Lon- 
don: 1889. 

The  first  part  of  this  work  deals  with  science  in  criticism, 
under  the  four  heads  :  Historic  Phases,  Recent  Nihilism,  The 


34  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

Problem  Stated,  Principles  of  Practice.  The  resume  of  the 
History  of  Criticism,  while  unavoidably  condensed  and  incon- 
clusive, is  replete  with  information  concerning  the  methods  of 
the  science  from  Aristotle,  Horace,  and  Longinus,  down  to  Vida; 
from  Webbe,  Puttenham,  and  Sidney,  to  Pope  ;  from  Addison 
to  Kames  and  Hume,  and  so  on  to  Diderot,  Lessing,  Sainte- 
Beuve,  Matthew  Arnold,  Lowell,  and  Henry  James  —  with  side- 
glances  at,  and  incisive  judgments  upon,  Rapin,  the  Abbe 
Dubos,  Batteux,  Rymer,  and  a  great  horde  of  caterpillar  critics. 
The  article  is  admirable  ;  not  so  systematic  as  the  lectures  of 
M.  Brunetiere  in  his  L'fivolution  des  Genres  dans  Phistoire  de 
la  Litterature,  but  suggestive  of  the  methods  of  the  various 
nations.  In  Recent  Nihilism,  pp.  46-65,  Mr.  Moulton,  of  the 
Inductive  School,  comes  in  for  as  thorough  a  demolition  as 
might  justly  be  meted  out  to  a  man  proposing  an  inductive 
system  and  (in  Mr.  Robertson's  opinion)  practicing  methods 
largely  judicial  and  deductive.  The  Problem  Stated,  pp.  65- 
105,  sifts  the  various  theories  of  a  standard  of  taste,  and  reviews 
the  results  of  the  Fortnightly 's  Symposium  (Aug.-Nov.  1887). 
In  Principles  of  Practice,  pp.  105-148,  the  charge  upon  the 
Inductive  School  is  renewed,  and  some  good-natured  advice 
about  people  who  live  in  glass  houses  is  administered  to 
Mr.  W.  D.  Howells.  The  studies  of  Mr.  Robertson  do  not 
build  up  a  method,  but  they  certainly  clear  the  atmosphere  and 
reveal  the  possibility  of  a  criticism  which  may  be  methodical. 
Mr.  Robertson's  formal  definition  of  criticism  is  found  on  p.  6 : 
"  The  wording  of  the  active  or  energizing  result  of  the  mental 
impression  made  by  books ;  as  all  art  including  verse,  and  all 
literature  as  apart  from  criticism  is  an  energizing  result  of  an 
impression  made  by  things  or  actions."  For  review  of  the 
work  see  Sat.  ftev.,  67 :  673. 

SACHER-MASOCH,    L.    VON.      Ueber   den    Werth    der    Kritik. 

Erfahrungen  und  Bemerkungen.     Leipzig:  1873. 
Controversial  and  satirical.     The  author  raises  the  question 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  35 

whether  modern  criticism  is  of  any  avail,  and  answers  it  by  print- 
ing numerous  critiques  upon  his  own  productions,  with  charac- 
teristic comments.  All  criticism,  he  decides,  is  either  adver- 
tisement or  polemic. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  C.  A.     M.  de  Fe'letz  et  de  la  Critique  litteraire 

sous  1'Empire.  Causeries  de  Lundi,  25  Fevr.  1850. 
Sainte-Beuve  in  this  causerie  takes  a  somewhat  low  view  of 
his  art.  Criticism  by  itself  can  accomplish  nothing.  It  suc- 
ceeds only  when  it  acts  in  concert  with  the  public  and  in  col- 
laboration with  it.  Criticism  is  the  secretary  of  the  public, 
divining  and  expressing  every  day  what  the  public  thinks  or 
desires. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,    C.    A.      Chateaubriand.      Nouveaux    Lundis, 
21,  22  Juillet,  1862,  Tome  3ieme.     Paris:  1884. 

In  this  double  paper  Sainte-Beuve  expounds  in  detail  his 
method  of  literary  criticism.  Starting  with  the  author  of  the 
work,  the  critic  studies  him  zoologically,  as  it  were,  with  ref- 
erence to  his  race  and  his  habitat.  He  traces  his  family 
history,  seeking  in  the  parents  (especially  the  mother),  the 
brothers  and  sisters,  and  even  the  children,  the  secret  of  his 
peculiar  individuality.  From  the  family  he  passes  to  "le 
premier  milieu,"  the  group  of  friends  and  contemporaries  who, 
like  a  literary  family,  shared  in  the  author's  aims  and  ambitions. 
The  expressions  of  his  enemies  and  admirers  also  furnish  clues. 
The  result  of  this  method  of  study,  which  places  the  author  in 
his  environment  of  heredity  and  influence,  is  the  discovery  of  a 
characteristic  name  by  which  his  peculiar  talent  may  be  desig- 
nated. 

Though  Sainte-Beuve  calls  his  method  naturalistic,  he  does 
not  claim  for  it  a  place  among  the  exact  sciences.  The  day 
will  indeed  come,  he  thinks,  when  the  great  families  of  genius 
and  their  principal  divisions  shall  be  accurately  determined  \ 


36  LITER  A  R  Y  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

but  men  in  their  moral  nature  are  so  complex  that  the  critic  can- 
not hope  ever  to  treat  them  just  as  he  would  animals  or  plants. 
Criticism  must  forever  remain  an  art,  demanding  like  the  art 
of  medicine  a  special  tact  or  talent  in  those  who  practice  it 
(p.  17).  Comments  on  Sainte-Beuve  will  be  found  in  Cornhill 
for  July,  1878  (by  A.  A.,  presumably  Alfred  Austin);  Robert- 
son's Essays,  p.  42-4,  94,  107,  116,  141-3;  the  article  'Sainte- 
Beuve  '  in  the  Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed.,  by  Matthew  Arnold ;  Brune- 
tiere's  L' Evolution  des  Genres,  p.  217-243;  Dowden's  article 
on  French  Criticism  in  Fortnightly,  46:  737;  A.  Birrell's  Res 
Judicatae  (London:  1892),  p.  271;  Brandes's  Litteratur  des 
igten  Jahrh.  (see  supra);  P.  Deschanel's  Figures  litteraires 
(Paris:  1889),  p.  127;  R.  Flint's  Historical  Philosophy  in 
France,  p.  621. 

SAINTSBURV,    G.      Essays   on    English    Literature.      London : 
1891. 

IX.  The  Kinds"  of  Criticism. 

An  entertaining  essay  by  an  experienced  and  opinionated 
critic.  The  test  of  the  value  of  any  criticism,  according  to 
Mr.  Saintsbury,  is  the  question,  What  idea  of  the  original  would 
this  criticism  give  to  a  tolerably  instructed  person  who  did  not 
know  the  original  ? 

SCHERER,  EDM.     fitudes  critiques  sur  la  Litterature  contem- 

poraine.     9  vols.     Paris:  1863-89. 

Expositions  of  critical  method  are  given  in  M.  Scherer's 
admirable  studies  of  Nisard,  vol.  I,  p.  171;  of  Sainte-Beuve, 
p.  321;  of  Taine,  vol.  II,  p.  in;  of  Shakespeare,  p.  137;  of 
the  Portfolio  of  Sainte-Beuve,  vol.  IV,  p.  114;  of  the  Method 
of  Taine,  p.  253.  In  vol.  I,  pp.  239-254,  the  author  treats  of 
historical  criticism. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.    Sammtliche  Werke.     Hrsg.  von  J.  Frauen- 
sta'dt.     6  vols.     Leipzig:  1877. 

Bd.  6,  pp.  486-512  Ueber  Urtheil,  Kritik,  Beifall  und  Ruhm. 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  37 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.    The  Art  of  Literature.     Trans,  by  B.  Saun- 
ders.     London:  1891. 

See  p.  87  for  translation  of  Schopenhauer's  Essay  Ueber  Urtheil, 

Kritik,  u.  s.  w. 

One  of  the  most  readable  of  Schopenhauer's  shorter  essays. 
The  author  discusses  the  relation  of  criticism  to  the  aesthetic 
sense,  the  duties  of  critics,  the  test  of  genius,  anonymity  in  criti- 
cism, the  rarity  of  critical  insight,  and  numerous  related  top- 
ics. The  essay  contains  acute  remarks,  such,  for  example,  as 
the  saying  that  critical  taste  is  the  feminine  of  genius ;  but  it 
presents  no  connected  theory. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.     Aspects  of  Poetry.     Boston:  1882. 

Pp.  31-55  Criticism  and  Creation  (repr.  from  Macm.  38:  246). 
Traverses  Arnold's  thesis  that  the  critic  prepares  the  way  for 
the    poet.     The    tendency  of   the  critic  is  to  mar  the  poet. 
"The  critic  has  had  his  day;  it  is  time  once  more  the  poet 
should  have  his  "  (p.  48). 

SNIDER,  D.  J.     Goethe's  Faust.     First  part.     Chicago:  1886. 

Pp.  75-101  Critical  Standards. 

A  distinction  must  be  made  between  the  criticism  of  works  of 
the  second  or  third  class  and  works  of  the  first  class.  The  former 
may  be  criticised  by  rules  drawn  from  models  or  by  native  good 
taste;  the  latter,  the  "literary  bibles,"  since  they  are  wholly 
original  and  revolutionary,  can  be  judged  only  by  the  law  of 
their  own  being. 

STAFFER,  P.     Petite  Comedie  de  la  critique  litteraire,  ou  Moliere 

selon  trois  ecoles  philosophiques.  Paris:  1866. 
In  the  introduction  to  this  entertaining  little  work,  Stapfer 
divides  critics  into  three  schools  :  first,  the  dogmatic  school, 
which  judges  according  to  literary  theories ;  second,  the  criti- 
cal school,  which  analyzes  impressions ;  third,  the  historic 
school,  which  seeks  the  causes  of  the  work  in  its  sources  and 


38  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  §2. 

environment.  These  schools  may  also  be  regarded  as  three 
stages  or  movements  through  which  passes  the  thought  of  every 
man  who  examines  the  problems  of  literary  criticism.  In  the 
dogmatic  stage  the  mind  affirms  ;  in  the  critical  stage  it  doubts  : 
in  the  historic  stage  it  returns  to  beliefs,  principles,  and  meth- 
ods. This  book  is  the  record  of  a  mind  that  has  passed 
through  the  three  stages.  To  illustrate  his  theory  the  author 
examines  Moliere  from  the  three  points  of  view.  The  dog- 
matic school  is  represented,  first,  by  an  essay  supposed  to  be 
written  by  a  pupil  of  W.  Schlegel ;  second,  by  "  Thoughts  of  a 
Humorist,  or  Mosaic  from  the  Poetics  of  Jean-Paul,"  imitated 
from  Richter  ;  third,  by  a  "  Meditation  of  a  Hegelian  Philoso- 
pher, or,  Picturesque  Voyage  through  Hegel's  Aesthetics"; 
fourth,  by  a  French  chorus  singing  praises  of  Moliere.  To  rep- 
resent the  critical  and  the  historic  schools,  no  writers  can 
be  found ;  but  their  places  are  ingeniously  supplied  by  two 
characters  from  Moliere's  Critique  de  l'£cole  des  Femmes, 
Dorante,  a  man  of  the  world,  and  Lysidas,  a  pedantic  poet. 
Dorante,  who  has  turned  Kantian,  criticises  the  ideas  of 
Lysidas  in  two  essays,  "A  Criticism  of  Literary  Dogmatism  " 
and  an  "  Essay  on  Taste."  Lysidas,  as  a  representative  of  the 
historic  school,  replies  in  three  essays  :  "  A  Critique  of  Taste," 
"  Doctrine  of  the  Historic  School,"  and  "  Moliere."  In  his 
conclusion  Stapfer  takes  a  despondent  tone,  being  unable  to  see 
how  the  contradictions  of  the  schools  can  be  reconciled.  He 
inclines  to  the  historic  school,  but  finds  it  too  ferocious  and 
inhuman. 

STAFFER,  P.     Les  Artistes  juges  et  parties.     Causeries  pari- 
siennes.     Paris:  1872. 

Pp.  1-36  La  critique  litteraire. 

Starting  with  an  idea  from  Matthew  Arnold's  essay  on  the 
Function  of  Criticism,  Stapfer  holds  that  criticism  is  inferior  to 
creation,  but  denies  that  they  are  mutually  exclusive.  The 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  39 

critic  may  feel  some  of  the  joy  of  the  poet.  The  function  of 
the  critic  is  to  take  what  is  best  in  literature  and  present  it  to 
the  public. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.     Victorian  Poets.     Boston:  1876. 

In  the  preface  Mr.  Stedman  sets  forth  briefly  his  method  of 
criticism  and  the  principles  —  "  out  of  fashion  just  now  "  —  on 
which  he  relies.  See,  also,  pp.  4,  5,  for  his  view  of  the  critic's 
province,  and  detached  remarks,  passim. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.     The  Nature  of  Poetry.     Boston:  1892. 

Consult  the  index  for  the  author's  frequent  and  pointed 
remarks  upon  the  relation  of  poetry  and  criticism,  English  criti- 
cism, the  age  of  criticism,  etc. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     The    Renaissance   in    Italy.     The   Catholic 
Reaction.     London:  1886. 

Pt.  2,  pp.  396-402  Fundamental  Principles  of  Criticism. 
The  author's  view  of  criticism  may  be  summed  up  as  'judg- 
ment based  upon  abiding  relations  between  art  and  human 
nature.' 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Essays   Speculative   and   Suggestive.     Lon- 
don :  1890. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  84-123  Some  Principles  of  Criticism. 
Further  development  of  the  ideas  brought  out  in  the  preced- 
ing reference.     Three  types  of  critic  are  distinguished:   The 
judge,  the   showman,  and   the   scientific    analyst.     The    good 
critic  is  a  combination  of  the  three. 

TAINE,  H.     History  of  English  Literature.     Trans,  by  H.  Van 
Laun.     London :  1883. 

Vol.  I,  p.  1-36  Conditions  of  Literary  Development. 
Taine's  method  of  criticism  is  flatly  and  frankly  scientific. 
Literature  is  a  natural  product  whose  characteristics  are  to  be 


40  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

investigated  and  recorded,  like  those  of  trees  and  flowers. 
Criticism  is  thus  a  kind  of  botany  applied  to  human  works,  and 
the  efforts  of  the  critic  are  devoted  to  determining  the  literary 
system  or  organism  which  is  made  up  of  the  productions  of  a 
given  period  or  nation.  Within  such  a  system,  when  it  has 
been  found,  will  be  arranged  the  authors  and  their  works  accord- 
ing to  the  dominant  characteristic  of  each.  The  literary  activity 
of  any  member  of  such  a  system  is  shaped  by  three  influences: 

(1)  The   race,    or   influence    of   heredity   and    temperament ; 

(2)  the   environment,   political,  social,  and  physical ;    (3)  the 
time.     Taine's  method  can  be  properly  studied  only  in  connec- 
tion with  his  general  theory  of  art. 

TAINE,  H.     Essais  de  critique  et  d'histoire.      Paris:  1858. 

Pp.  i-xv  Preface  —  De  la  methode. 

The  author  explains  briefly  his  method  of  criticism  (see 
above),  which  is  founded,  he  says,  upon  Aristotle  and  Hegel. 

TOBLER,   A.     Methodik  der  philologischen    Forschung.      (In 
Grober's  Grundriss  der  romanischen  Philologie,  1,  pp.  251- 
280.) 
Similar  in  purpose  to  the  methodologies  of  Blass  and  Boeckh, 

which  are  noticed  above.     The  topics  treated  by  Tobler  are 

as  follows :    I.  Textkritik ;     II.    Litteraturhistorische    Kritik  ; 

III.  Hermeneutik. 

URLICHS,  L.  VON.  Begriffsbestimmung  und  Einteilung  der 
Philologie.  (In  Iwan  Muller's  Handb.  der  klassischen 
Altertumswissenschaft.) 

Pp.  7-15  Kritik  und  Hermeneutik. 

Urlichs  divides  criticism  into  two  classes,  lower  and  higher 
criticism.  By  the  term  lower  criticism  he  means  textual  emenda- 
tion, conjecture,  recension,  and  the  like.  The  higher  criticism, 
dealing  with  the  work  as  a  whole,  is  of  two  kinds  :  (i)  Criticism 
of  the  species  (Gattungskritik)  which  judges  the  work  accord- 


§  2.]  REFERENCES.  41 

ing  to  the  law  of  its  type  and  its  relation  to  its  time  ;  and  (2) 
individual  criticism,  which  attributes  a  work  to  a  particular 
author,  or  pronounces  it  not  to  be  his.  Hermeneutics  is  simi- 
larly divided. 

VILLEMAIN,  A.  F.     Cours  de  litterature  franchise.     Paris:  1861. 
See  vol.  Ill,   pp.   197-242,   of  this   standard  work,  for   an 
account  of  eighteenth  century  criticism.     Three  classes  of  criti- 
cism are  distinguished  :  dogmatic,  historic,  and  conjectural. 

VILLEMAIN,  A.   F.     Discours   et  melanges  litteraires.     Paris : 

1873- 

P.   29   Discours   sur   les    avantages    et   les    inconvenients    de   la 
critique. 

Of  especial  interest  on  account  of  the  lofty  ideal  of  criticism 
which  it  upholds.  Villemain  believes  that  criticism  may  itself 
be  creative.  "  The  good  critics  cause  the  differences  between 
the  art  of  judgment  and  the  faculty  of  production  to  disap- 
pear, or  rather  by  pure  force  of  genius,  they  carry  a  kind  of 
creation  into  their  examination  of  the  fine  arts.  They  have  the 
air  of  inventing  that  which  they  observe"  (p.  31).  Reviewed 
by  W.  B.  O.  Peabody  in  N.  A.  Rev.,  31 :  94. 

WARD,   S.  G.     Criticism.      (In   Eliz.   P.   Peabody's  Aesthetic 

Papers.     Boston:   1849,  pp.  5-25.) 

An  attempt  at  a  philosophical  exposition  of  the  subject.  The 
essence  of  criticism  consists  in  seeing  the  world  from  a  new 
point  of  view,  in  finding  a  point  from  which  facts  arrange  them- 
selves in  a  new  and  unexpected  manner,  so  that  circumstances 
before  isolated  are  seen  as  a  part  of  a  new  whole.  "Such 
criticism  is  creative  in  character." 

WESTMINSTER,   80:  468    (p.    215,    in    Amer.    ed.)    Aims    and 

Methods  of  Criticism. 

Concerned  mainly  with  the  question  of  criticism  and  creation 
apropos  of  Arnold's  essay  On  the  Function  of  Criticism. 


42  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  2. 

WHIPPLE,  E.  P.  Essays  and  Reviews.  2  vols.  Boston : 
1861. 

Vol.  II,  p.  208  Shakespeare's  Critics  (reprinted  from  N.  A.  Rev., 
67:84). 

Criticism  has  changed  from  an  application  of  external  rules 
to  an  interpretation  of  inward  life. 

WILDE,  O.      iqth   Century,  28:  123,  435  The  True  Function 
and  Value  of  Criticism.     (Reprinted,  under  the  title  Critic 
and  Artist,  in  Intentions.     New  York:  1891.) 
An  entertaining,  though  paradoxical  and  fantastic,  argument 
upholding  the  value  of  criticism  as  a  creative  art.     Extrava- 
gances and  affectations  aside,  it  is  an  article  of  remarkable 
insight  and  originality. 

WILKINSON,  W.  C.  A  Free  Lance  in  the  Field  of  Life  and 
Letters.  New  York:  1874. 

Pp.  108-113  Qualifications  of  the  Critic. 

The  endowment  of  the  critic  should  include  broad  knowledge 
of  his  subject  and  related  subjects,  sympathetic  appreciation, 
and  standards  of  judgment  which,  although  not  arbitrary,  are 
yet  matters  of  personal  conviction. 

WUNDT,  WILH.  Logik.  Eine  Untersuchung  der  Principien 
der  Erkenntniss  und  der  Methoden  wissenschaftlicher 
Forschung.  2  vols.  Stuttgart:  1883. 

Kd.  2  Methodenlehre. 

Hermeneutics  and  criticism  (pp.  518-549)  are  treated  as 
methods  of  research  employed  in  the  two  historical  sciences, 
philology  and  history.  The  function  of  criticism  (p.  529)  is  (i) 
to  distinguish  the  true  from  the  false,  and  (2)  according  to  the 
grade  of  truthfulness  to  estimate  worth.  In  discriminating  the 
various  kinds  of  criticism  Wundt  follows  closely  the  analysis  of 
August  Boeckh. 


§  3,  A.}  GENERAL   NOTE.  43 

WYZEWA,  T.  DE.  Revue  Bleue,  28  Avril,  1894.  Du  role  de  la 
critique  dans  la  litterature  de  ce  temps. 

The  writer  laments  that  the  encroachments  of  criticism  upon 
literature  have  given  to  France  a  Taine  and  a  Renan  in  place 
of  a  Balzac  and  a  Victor  Hugo.  In  an  ideal  state  of  culture 
humanity  would  have  no  use  for  criticism,  since  works  of  art  are 
made  not  to  be  judged  but  to  be  loved. 

Such  value  as  modern  criticism  has  it  derives  from  the 
originality  of  the  critic's  mind.  Most  of  the  so-called  critics  do 
not  criticise  at  all.  Under  pretext  of  writing  criticisms  they 
turn  off  prose  poems,  narratives,  or  philosophical  reveries  — 
graceful  transcripts  of  subtle  variations  of  impression. 


MARSHALL.  H.  R.     Aesthetic  Principles.     New  York:  1895. 

See  pp.  84-1 1  r  of  this  excellent  little  work  for  a  discussion 
of  the  aesthetic  standards  of  the  critic.  Mr.  Marshall  recog- 
nizes a  hierarchy  of  standards  ranging  from  the  individual 
standard  of  the  moment  to  which  we  refer  when  we  make  off- 
hand judgment,  through  the  "  relatively  stable  individual  stand- 
ard," and  the  standard  of  the  cultivated  man  as  we  conceive 
him,  up  to  the  ideal  aesthetic  field  of  the  individual.  Judicious 
remarks  on  the  relation  of  artist  to  critic,  and  on  the  critic's 
responsibility,  are  found  on  pp.  105—111. 

§  3.     GENERAL    NOTE. 

A.  EXAMINATION  OF  CRITIQUES.  —  The  student  of  criticism,  at 
the  beginning  of  his  course,  is  advised  to  read  a  few  recognized 
masterpieces  of  critical  workmanship,  such  as  are  given  below, 
asking  himself,  as  he  reads,  the  following  questions  :  (i)  Is  the 
critic's  method  inductive  or  judicial  ?  (2)  If  the  former,  what 
factors  of  literary  production  does  he  investigate  ?  What 
laws  of  literary  growth  are  stated  or  implied  ?  (3)  If  the 
critic's  method  is  judicial,  what  standards  of  evaluation  does  he 


44  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  3. 

use,  and  what  canons  are  stated  or  implied  ?  (4)  How  closely 
does  he  follow  Arnold's  rule  of  disinterestedness  ?  (5)  What 
seems  to  have  been  the  critic's  object  in  writing  his  critique  ? 

ARNOLD,  MATTHEW.     Essays  in  Criticism. 

Essays  on  Heine,  Joubert,  and  E.  de  Guerin. 
ARNOLD,  MATTHEW.     Essays  in  Criticism.     2d  series. 

Essays  on  Milton,  Gray,  Keats,  Wordsworth,  Byron,  Shelley, 
Tolstoi,  and  Amiel. 

AUSTIN,  A.     The  Poetry  of  the  Period. 

Critiques  on  Tennyson,  Browning,   Swinburne,  Arnold,  and 
Morris. 

BAGEHOT,  W.     Literary  Studies. 
BRIMLEY,  G.     Essays. 

Essays    on    Tennyson,    Wordsworth,    Patmore,    Thackeray, 
Bulwer,  Dickens,  and  Kingsley. 

BIRRELL,  A.     Obiter  Dicta. 

Critique  on  Browning. 
DOWDEN,  E.     Studies  in  Literature. 
DOWDEN,  E.     Transcripts  and  Studies. 
GIFFORD,  WM.      Quarterly  Rn>ieu>  for  April,  1818,  p.  204. 

The  famous  attack  on  Keats's  Endymion. 

GOSSE,  E.     Seventeenth  Century  Studies. 

Essays  on  Lodge,  Webster,  Herrick,  Cowley,  Otway. 

HOWELLS,  W.  D.     Editor's  Study,  in  Harper's  Magazine,  begin- 
ning in  vol.  72. 

JEFFREY,  F.     Contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  Review. 

See  particularly  the  essay  on  Wordsworth's  Excursion,  Nov. 
1814;  the  paper  on  Keats's  Endymion  and  Eve  of  St.  Agnes, 


A.}  GENERAL   NOTE.  45 

Aug.  1820;  on  the  Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  April,  1805  ;  on 
the  Lady  of  the  Lake,  Aug.  18.10  ;  on  Childe  Harold,  Dec.  1816. 

JOHNSON,  SAMUEL.     Lives  of  the  Poets. 

No    choice    need  be   indicated   here.     The  Life   of   Milton 
should  not  be  overlooked. 

LESSING,  G.  E.     The  Laokoon,  The  Hamburg  Dramaturgy. 
LOWELL,  J.  R.     My  Study  Windows. 

Essays  on  Swinburne,  Chaucer,  and  Pope. 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     Among  My  Books.     2d  series. 
MACAULAY,  T.  B.     Essays. 

See  especially  essays  on  Milton,  Dryden,  Comic  Dramatists 
of  the  Restoration,  and  Robert  Montgomery. 

MASSON,  D.     Essays. 

Essays  on  Dryden,  Swift,  and  Wordsworth. 

MAZZINI,  Jos.     Essays. 

Essays  on  Byron  and  Goethe,  Carlyle,  and  the  Minor  Works 
of  Dante. 

NOEL,  RODEN.     Essays  on  Poetry  and  Poets. 

Essays  on   Shelley,   Wordsworth,   Keats,   Hugo,  Tennyson, 
Browning,  and  Whitman. 

PATER,  W.     Appreciations. 

Essays  on  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and  Lamb. 
SCHERER,  EDM.     Studies  in  Contemporary  Literature. 
STEDMAN,  E.  C.     Victorian  Poets. 
STEPHEN,  L.     Hours  in  a  Library.     2d  series. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  C.  A.     Causeries  de  Lundi.     3d  ed. 
See  especially  the  essays  in  vols.  i,  3,  6,  7,  n,  and  13. 


46  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  3. 

WILSON,  J.     Recreations  of  Christopher  North. 

See,  for  further  specimens  of  -criticism,  if  they  are  desired, 
the  reviews  by  Mr.  Howells,  Mr.  Aldrich,  and  Mr.  Scudder,  in 
the  Atlantic  Monthly  ;  the  earlier  numbers  of  the  No.  Am.  Rez>.  ; 
the  Edinburgh,  Westminster,  Quarterly,  and  Scottish  Reviews; 
the  London  Spectator,  Athenaeum,  Speaker,  Academy,  and  Sat- 
urday Review ;  and  the  articles  by  Brunetiere,  Ganderax,  and 
Therese  Bentzon,  in  the  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes.  Goethe's  and  Les- 
sing's  critical  essays  may  be  looked  up  in  the  complete  editions 
of  their  works. 

The  following  list  is  recommended  by  Prof.  Adolfo  Bartoli 
(I  migliori  libri  italiani,  Milano :  1892,  p.  12)  to  students  who 
intend  devoting  themselves  to  Italian  literary  criticism  :  P.  Fau- 
riel,  Dante  e  le  origin!  della  lingua  e  della  letteratura  (Palermo: 
1856);  A.  D'Ancona,  Studi  di  critica  e  di  storia  letteraria 
(Bologna:  1880);  F.  D'Ovidio,  Saggi  critici  (Napoli :  1879); 
P.  Rajna,  Le  fonti  dell' Orlando  Furioso  (Firenze :  1876); 
P.  Villari,  Machiavelli  e  i  suoi  tempi  (Firenze:  1877);  F.  De 
Sanctis,  Storia  della  letteratura  italiana  (3d  ed.,  Napoli),  Saggi 
critici  (jd  ed.,  Napoli),  Nuovi  saggi  critici  (2d  ed.,  Napoli); 
G.  Carducci,  Poliziano  (Preface);  D.  Comparetti,  Virgilio  nel 
medioevo  (Liyorno).  To  these  should  certainly  be  added 
Bartoli's  own  Storia  della  letteratura  italiana  (7  v.,  Firenze). 

Brandes,  Juan  Valera,  and  Belinski'  are  representative  names 
in  Danish-Norwegian,  Spanish,  and  Russian  criticism,  respec- 
tively. 

B.  SPECIAL  TOPICS,  i .  Criticism  in  the  Philosophical  Sense. — 
The  term  criticism  is  used  in  the  history  of  philosophy  to  des- 
ignate the  philosophical  system  of  Immanuel  Kant.  The 
meaning  which  Kant  attached  to  the  term  has  doubtless  had 
considerable  influence  in  shaping  modern  views  upon  the  sub- 
ject; hence  it  will  be  well  for  the  advanced  student  to  gain 
some  acquaintance  with  the  Kantian  philosophy.  Kant's 


jR.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  47 

three  critiques  are  now  available  in  good  translations,  and 
should,  if  possible,  be  read,  especially  the  critique  of  Judg- 
ment (see  §  8);  but  if  they  seem  too  formidable,  Wallace's 
Kant  (Blackwood's  Philos.  Classics),  or  the  histories  of  Ueber- 
weg,  Erdmann,  or  Windelband,  will  give  the  desired  information 
in  brief  compass.  Those  who  care  to  push  their  inquiries  far- 
ther may  consult  with  profit  the  two  volumes  of  Caird's  Critical 
Philosophy  of  Immanuel  Kant,  especially  the  first  twenty 
pages  of  vol.  I.  •  On  the  critical  movement  in  English  thought 
see  Stephen's  History  of  English  Thought  in  the  i8th  Century 
(2  vols.,  New  York:  1876),  vol.  I,  p.  34. 

Discussions  of  hermeneutics  from  the  philosophical  point  of 
view  are  contained  in  Schleiermacher's  Ueber  den  Begriff  der 
Hermeneutik  (in  Abhandl.  der  Berlin.  Akad.  1829,  and  in 
Werke  zur  Philos.  3:387),  and  in  Wundt's  Logik,  Bd.  2, 
Abschn.  IV.  Cap.  2  (see  §  2).  On  philosophical  criticism  in 
general,  see  Schelling's  Ueber  das  Wesen  der  philosophischen 
Kritik  (Sammtliche  Werke,  Stuttgart:  1859,  I.  Abth.  5.  Bd.). 

2.  Philological  Criticism.  —  The  leading  methodologies  are 
given  in  §  2.  In  addition  may  be  mentioned  :  Biicheler,  Philolo- 
gische  Kritik  (Bonn:  1878);  Steinthal,  Ueber  die  Arten  und 
Formen  der  Interpretation  (in  Verhandlungen  der  32.  Ver- 
sammlung  deutschen  Philologen,  Wiesbaden:  1877);  H.  Paul, 
Paul  u.  Braune's  Beitrage,  5:  428  Nibelungenfrage  und  philo- 
logische  Methode;  O,  Froehde,  N.  Jahrb.  f.  Phil.  u.  Paed. 
147:  433  Begriff  u.  Aufgabe  d.  Litteraturwissenschaft ;  O.  Rib- 
beck,  Rheinisches  Museum,  29:  209  Ueber  '  unabhangige  '  Kritik 
mit  einem  Anhang  iiber  gewissenhafte  Exegese  ;  Bursian,  Ar- 
chaol.  Kritik  u.  Hermeneutik  (in  Verhandlungen  d.  21.  Philo- 
logenversammlung  zu  Augsburg,  1862,  p.  55);  Levezow,  Ueber 
archaol.  "Kritik  u.  Hermeneutik  (in  Abhandl.  d.  Berliner  Akad. 
1833,  pp.  225-248);  L.  Preller,  Grundziige  derarchaol.  Kritik  u. 
Hermeneutik  (in  Zeitschr.  f.  Alterthumswiss.  1845,  Suppl.  Nr. 
i3ff.);  G.  Bernhardy,  Grundlinien  zur  Encyclopadie  der  Phi- 


48  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  3. 

lologie,  p.  53;    C.  von  Prantl,  Verstehen  und  Beurtheilen  (in 
Munch.  Akad.  1877). 

3.  Biblical  Criticism.  —  Exhaustive  discussions  of  this  im- 
portant phase  of  criticism  will  be  found  in  the  articles  by 
Ebrard  and  Landerer  on  '  Kritik  '  and  '  Hermeneutik  '  in  Her- 
zog's  Real-Encyclopadie  fur  prot.  Theologie.  Those  who  do 
not  read  German  may  consult  the  lectures  of  Prof.  Tholuck,  of 
Halle,  translated  by  E.  A.  Park,  and  published  in  Bibliotheca 
Sacra  i:  178,  332,  552,  726.  On  pp.  353—6  is  given  an  excel- 
lent account  of  the  controversy  regarding  the  higher  and  the 
lower  criticism.  A  recent  work  of  high  character  is  T.  K. 
Cheyne's  Founders  of  Old  Testament  Criticism  (New  York  : 


4.  Historical  Criticism.  —  The   most   systematic  treatise    is 
Ernst  Bernheim's  Lehrbuch  der  historischen  Methode,  Leipzig  : 
1889   (see  §  2).     Additional   references  are:    E.   B.  Andrews, 
Brief  Institutes  of  General   History  ;    Edm.   Scherer's  fitudes 
critiques,  vol.  I,  p.  239-254;  E.   Dottain,  Rci\  contcmp.  1862- 
II:  452  Nouveau  systeme  de  critique  historique  ;  Floto,  Ueber 
historische  Kritik  ;   A.  Rhomberg,  Die  Erhebung  der  Geschichte 
zum  Range  einer  Wissenschaft,  1883;   H.  Sidgwick,  Mind,  n: 
203  The  Historical  Method  ;  G.  Waitz,  Hist.  Zeitschrift,  6:  349 
Zur  Wiirdigung  von  Ranke's  historischer  Kritik  ;  Ed.  Zeller, 
Hist.    Zcitschr.    6:356    Die    hist.    Kritik    und    das    Wunder  ; 
A.  Ritschl,  Hist.  Zeitschr.  8:  85   Erlauterungen  u.  s.  w.  ;    Ed. 
Zeller,    Hist.    Zts.    8:  100  Zur   Wiirdigung    der    Ritschl'schen 
Erlauterungen;  L.  Weiland,  Hist.  Zts.  58:  310  Quelleneclition 
und  Schriftstellerkritik  ;  C.  K.  Adams,  The  Study  of  History, 
Introduction  to  his  Manual  of  Historical  Literature  (Harpers). 

5.  Musical  Criticism.  —  But  a  few  references  out  of  many 
can  be  given  on  this  point.     Of  value  to  the  general  student 
are  Hueffer's  Italian  Studies,  pp.  213-237;  Gurney's  Power  of 
Sound,  chap.  23,  and  Tertium  Quid  ;  R.  de  Re'cy's  La  Critique 
musicale  au  siecle  dernier,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,   \  Jan.  1887; 


B.}  GENERAL   NOTE.  49 

Sat.  Rev.  72:  187;  73:332;  V.  Stanford,  Fortnightly,  N.  s., 
55:  826  Musical  Criticism  in  England;  J.  F.  Runciman,  Fort- 
nightly, N.  s.,  56:  170  Musical  Criticism  and  the  Critics. 

6.  Art  Criticism.  —  On   this    head  see   Colvin,  Fortnightly, 
32:210;    Fleeming   Jenkin,    Papers,    Literary,    Scientific,   etc. 
(London  :  1887),  vol.  I,  p.  93;  R.  St.  J.  Tyrwhitt,  Contemporary, 
1 1 :  1 01 ;  Herder,  Werke,  Bd.  i,  p.  245,  Ursprung  des  Kunstrich- 
ter;    H.  Grimm,  Deutsche  Rundschau,   51:398    Bemerkungen 
iiber  Werth  und  Wirkung  der  Kunstkritik ;   Atlantic,  39 :  486 
Artists  and  Art  Criticism;    Scribner,  N.  s.,  9:  132   Artists  as 
Critics;  Jonathan  Richardson,  Works  (London:  1792),  II.  Es- 
say on  the  Art  of  Criticism ;  Mrs.  M.  W.  Costelloe,  iqth  Cen- 
tury, 35 :  828  The  New  and  the  Old  Art  Criticism  (favors  the 
scientific  study  of  art);   H.  Helferich,  Kunst  fur  Alle,  1891,  pp. 
164,  1 80  Kunstler  und  Kunstkritiker ;   F.  Brunetiere,  Histoire 
et  litterature  (3  vols.,  Paris:  1884-6),  i:  129  La  critique  d'art 
au  xviie  siecle  ;  A.  Bougot,  Essai  sur  la  critique  d'art,  ses  prin- 
cipes,  sa  methode,  son  histoire  en  France  (Paris:  1877), 

7.  Curiosities  of  Criticism.  —  Collections  of  the  mistakes  of 
the  critics,  being  usually  made  for  purposes  of  entertainment, 
are  as  a  general  thing  not  very  trustworthy.     If  use  is  made  of 
them  the  references  should  be  carefully  verified.     Among  the 
best  of  the  kind  are  T.  Hall  Caine's  Cobwebs  of  Criticism ; 
Jennings's  Curiosities  of   Criticism  ;    Allingham's  Varieties  in 
Prose  (3  vols.,  London:  1893),  vol.  Ill,  p.  313  ;  W.  Mathews's 
Great  Conversers,  p.  239;  A.  Repplier's  Books  and  Men  (Bos- 
ton: 1888),  p.  125;  W.   S.  Walsh's  Paradoxes  of  Philosophy 
(Philadelphia:  1889),  p.  45;    Disraeli's    Curiosities  of  Litera- 
ture. 

8.  National  Types   of  Criticism.  —  These   are   best   studied 
from  the  original  sources  by  a  comparison  of  the  critical  essays 
of  Arnold,  Lowell,  Sainte-Beuve,  Goethe,  Brandes,  De  Sanctis, 
and  other  representatives  of  national  criticism.     The  following 
references  may  be  helpful :   AMERICAN  :  H.  H.  Boyesen,  Ameri- 


50  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  3. 

can  Literary  Criticism  and  its  Value,  Forum,  15:  459;  C.  A. 
Bristed,  American  Criticism,  N.  A.  Rev.,  114:  23.  BRITISH: 
A.  H.  Everett,  Tone  of  British  Criticism,  N.  A.  Rev.,  31:  26; 
Mrs.  M.  O.  W.  Oliphant,  Literary  History  of  England  (3  vols., 
London:  1882),  vol.  II,  p.  35,  English  Critics;  C.  C.  Felton, 
British  Criticism,  N.  A.  Rev.,  43:  407;  E.  P.  Whipple,  Essays 
and  Reviews,  vol.  II,  British  Critics  (also  in  N.  A.  Rev.,  61: 
468);  W.  H.  Prescott,  British  Criticism,  JV.  A.  Rev.  49:  325. 
FRENCH:  H.  Harisse,  French  Criticism,  N.  A.  Rev.,  93:99; 
Atlantic,  65:  708  some  recent  volumes  of  French  Criticism; 
J.  Levallois,  Corrcspondant,  N.S.,  55  (1873):  904  Critique  lit- 
te'raire  en  France,  sa  tradition  et  ses  devoirs  ;  W.  Rells,  Vossische 
Zeitung,  1891,  No.  21  Die  psychologische  Kritik  in  Frankreich  ; 
At/antic,  43:650  Zola  as  a  critic;  Peschier,  Phases  de  la 
Critique  en  France,  Herrigs  Anhir,  1 1 :  294 ;  Rev.  d.  D. 
Mondcs,  3 :  59, 593  La  Critique  sous  le  premier  Empire.  ITALIAN  : 
P.  Ferrieri,  Francesco  De  Sanctis  e  la  critica  letteraria  (Milano  : 
1888);  G.  Trezza,  La  critica  moderna  (2d  ed.,  Bologna  :  1880). 
GERMAN  :  G.  H.  Lewes,  Life  and  Works  of  Goethe  (2  vols., 
London:  1855),  vol.  II,  p.  201  German  philosophical  criticism 
of  literature. 

(See,  also,  supra,  Brunetiere,  Dowden,  Caro,  Scherer,  and  the 
references  under  §  5.) 

9.  Practical  Aspects  of  Criticism.  —  Phases  of  this  subject 
are  touched  upon  by  most  of  the  English  and  American  writers 
on  criticism  whose  works  are  cited  above.  Additional  refer- 
ences are  the  following :  J.  C.  Adams,  Literary  Log-Rolling, 
Forum,  2:515;  E.  Fawcett,  Should  Critics  be  Gentlemen? 
Lippincott,  39:  163  (reprinted  in  Agnosticism,  New  York:  1889, 
p.  194);  W.  Knight,  Criticism  as  a  Trade,  iqth  Century.  26:  423; 
A.  J.  Church,  Criticism  as  a  Trade  (reply  to  Knight's  article), 
iqtti  Century,  26:833;  A.  Lang,  Manners  of  Critics,  Forum, 
4:  58;  G.  H.  Lewes,  English  Errors  and  Abuses  of  Criticism, 
Westtn.,  38:  466;  C.  Thomas,  Ethics  of  Criticism,  Nation,  45: 


C]  GEA^ERAL   NOTE.  51 

269;  Should  Critics  be  Gentlemen  ?  Sat.  Rev.,  63 :  41 ;  W.  Wat- 
son, Critics  and  their  Craft,  National,  16:  789  (reprinted  in 
Excursions  in  Criticism,  London  :  1893,  p.  81);  Scribner,  6:  238 
Conscience  and  Courtesy  in  Criticism,  9:625  Indecencies  of 
Criticism;  Atlantic,  53:  578  Ignorant  Criticism;  R.  Blake, 
Anonymous  Criticism  (London:  1877). 

C.  MISCELLANEOUS  REFERENCES  ON  CRITICISM.  —  J.  L.  Allen, 
Caterpillar  Criticism,  Forum,  4:  332;  H.  F.  Amiel,  Journal 
intime,  vol.  II,  pp.  72,  238-40,  244;  W.  Archer,  About  the 
Theatre  (London:  1886),  p.  203  English  of  Critics;  J.  C. 
Bailey,  A  Plea  for  Critics,  Murray,  10:  923;  R.  Buchanan,  The 
Coming  Terror  (London:  1891),  p.  143  The  Modern  Young 
Man  as  Critic;  J.  Buckham,  Human  Element  in  Criticism, 
Critic,  22:  268;  G.  R.  Carpenter,  Literary  Criticism,  Harvard 
Mo,,  7:  185;  M.  A.  Dodge,  Skirmishes  and  Sketches,  p.  399 
Critics;  Essays  from  the  Nation  (New  York:  1867),  II.  Crit- 
ics and  Criticism  ;  W.  Hazlitt,  Table-Talk  (2d  ed.,  2  vols.,  Lon- 
don: 1824),  p.  117  On  Criticism  (rails  at  bad  critics);  W.  Haz- 
litt, Round  Table  (London :  1884),  Commonplace  Critics ; 
W.  C.  Hazlitt,  Offspring  of  Thought  (London:  1884),  p.  145 
Progress  of  Criticism ;  W.  C.  Hazlitt,  Sketches  and  Essays 
(London:  1839),  p.  227  On  Taste  (the  best  critic  is  he  who  \ 
feels  to  the  utmost);  A.  Helps,  Brevia  (London:  1871),  Crit- 
ics, How  to  Bear  Criticism,  the  Slyly-denigrating  kind  of 
Criticism  (brief  notes  on  criticism,  of  no  great  value) ;  A.  Helps, 
Friends  in  Council  (4  vols.,  London:  1869—72),  ist  ser.  I.  On 
Giving  and  Taking  Criticism,  2d  ser.  I.  Criticism  (principally 
moral  reflection  on  bad  and  hasty  criticism,  etc.);  J.  G.  Holland, 
Every-day  Topics  (2  vols.,  New  York:  1892),  vol.  I,  p.  53  Criti- 
cism ;  T.  H.  Huxley,  Nature,  27:  396  Art  and  Science  (see  p. 
397  on  the  critical  element  in  art  appreciation)  ;  W.  Irving, 
Biography  and  Miscellanies  (New  York:  1866),  p.  447  Desul- 
tory Thoughts  on  Criticism  (doubts  "  whether  either  writer 


52  LITERARY   CRITICISM.  [§  3. 

or  reader  is  benefited  by  what  is  commonly  called  criticism"); 
S.  S.  Kingdon,  Writer,  2:  222  Rules  of  Criticism;  V.  Knox, 
Essays  (3  vols.,  London:  1823),  vol.  I,  p.  155  Modern  Criti- 
cism; A.  Lang,  National,  19:603  A  Critical  Taboo;  Literary 
World  (Boston),  22:  110  Criticism  of  Books;  Macmillan,  60: 
134  Critics  in  Court;  B.  Matthews,  New  Rei>.,  3:  455  Whole 
Duty  of  Critics  (reprinted  in  Americanisms,  New  York:  1892; 
draws  up  "12  good  rules  for  critics");  B.  Matthews,  Recent 
Essays  in  Criticism,  Cosmopolitan,  12:  124;  W.  Mathews,  Lit- 
erary Style,  p.  100  Folly  of  Sensitiveness  to  Criticism;  E.  S. 
Nadal,  Essays  (London:  1882),  p.  261  Newspaper  Literary 
Criticism ;  T.  Purnell,  Literature  and  its  Professors  (London  : 
1867),  p.  14  Weight  of  Criticism;  A.  Rickett,  Modern  Criti- 
cism, National,  21:  717;  J.  Ruskin,  Arrows  of  the  Chace,  vol. 
II,  pp.  235-264;  E.  F.  Wheeler,  Critic  on  the  Hearth,  Lippin- 
cott,  43:755;  Atlantic,  66:712  A  Critic  on  Criticism;  J.  F. 
Genung,  The  Practical  Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  302-7  Inter- 
pretation, pp.  404—5  Criticism  ;  Scribner,  5 :  384  Criticism  ; 
Scribner,  N.S.,  8:  658  Mechanical  Criticism;  Atlantic,  40:  102 
A  New  Kind  of  Criticism,  44:  257  Change  in  Criticism,  56: 
138  Criticism  of  a  Critic,  59:  283  The  Book  Notice  and  the 
Criticism  ;  W.  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (2  vols.,  New 
York:  1890),  vol.  2,  p.  365;  I.  Disraeli,  The  Calamities  and 
Quarrels  of  Authors  (London  :  1860),  p.  51  Influence  of  Bad 
Temper  in  Criticism,  p.  139  Undue  Severity  of  Criticism, 
p.  423  Political  Criticism  on  Literary  Composition  ;  J.  Runci- 
man,  Side  Lights  (London  :  1893),  Colour-Blindness  in  Litera- 
ture (on  individual  opinion  as  opposed  to  received  standards, 
on  sham  admiration,  etc.);  Catharine  B.  La  Monte,  Poet-Lore, 
6:  332  A  Brief  Defense  of  Criticism  ;  H.  James,  Author,  3:  67 
Literary  Criticism  ;  A.  Birrell,  New  Rev.,  6 :  97  Critics  and 
Authors;  Blatter  f.  literarische  Unterhaltung,  i  (1857):  130 
Kritik  und  kiinstlerisches  Schaffen,  183  Kritik  und  Anti- 
Kritik,  262  Zur  Kritik  (the  service  of  criticism  is  to  cultivate 


C.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  53 

a  sense  for  good  art  and  prevent  dilettanteism);  A.  Neugraf, 
Deutsche  Zeitung,  7096,  Krit.  u.  Rasonnement;  F.  Spielhagen, 
Aus  meiner  Studienmappe  (Beitrage  z.  litt.  Aesth.  und  Kritik, 
2  Aufl.,  Berlin:  1891),  pp.  1-46  Produktion,  Kritik  und  Publi- 
kum  (the  critic  a  necessary  medium  between  the  artist  and  his 
mixed  public);  A.  Liibben,  Herrigs's  Arckiv.,  6:  349  Die 
Kritik,  besonders  die  aesthetische  Kritik  ;  Herrig's  Archiv., 
45 :  35  Ueber  die  aesthetische-psychologische  Beurtheilung  der 
Poesie  ;  B.  Mazzarella,  Delia  critica  (Geneva :  1866),  vol.1, 
pp.  1-33;  Necker,  Unsere  Zeit,  1889-! 1 :  273  Werth  der  Kritik ; 
Th.  Lipps,  Zts.  f.  vergl.  Litterattirgeschichte,  5 :  438  Tragik, 
Tragodie  und  wissenschaftliche  Kritik  ;  G.  Barzellatti,  Nuova 
Antologia,  16  Gennaio,  1890  Francesco  De  Sanctis  (see  pp.  323, 
324,  for  an  exposition  after  Villari,  of  De  Sanctis'  method 
of  criticism);  Chas.  de  Remusat,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  Nov. 
1863  L'Art  par  la  critique  ;  Gustave  Planche,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes, 
i  Mai  1856  Mceurs  et  devoirs  de  la  critique  ("The  aim  of  the 
critic  should  be  to  envisage  under  all  its  aspects  the  work  of 
the  poet,  the  historian,  the  philosopher");  C.  de  Mazade,  Rev. 
d.  D.  Mondes,  15  Juillet  1867,  p.  499  Le  realisme  dans  la 
critique  (criticism  of  Taine's  methods);  The'odore  Dupuy, 
Melanges  litteraires  et  historiques  (Milan:  1886),  I.  De  la 
critique  litteraire  ;  J.  Barbey  d'Aurevilly,  Les  ridicules  du  temps 
(2e  ed.,  Paris:  1883),  pp.  1—13  La  comedie  de  la  critique  (writ- 
ten 1867;  abuses  bad  critics,  and  asserts  that  criticism  is 
dead),  p.  27  Les  chats  de  la  critique  (written  1866;  two 
things  constitute  the  essence  of  criticism :  positiveness  and 
clearness). 

The  works  of  Sir  Egerton  Brydges  contain  frequent  discus- 
sions of  criticism.  The  following  references  are  to  the  Censura 
Literaria  (10  vols.,  London:  1805—9):  i:  349,  2:  i  Puttenham's 
Art  of  Poesie  ;  2:  275  Webbe's  Discourses,  364  James's  Essayes 
of  a  Prentise,  234  Notices  regarding  several  old  English  Poets; 
7:  400  Severity  of  Fashionable  Criticism.  In  the  Anti-Critic 


54  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  3. 

(Geneva :  1822),  pp.  1-4  treat  of  the  character  of  modern  criti- 
cism ;  pp.  4-29,  of  modern  taste  in  poetry;  pp.  49-57,  of  the 
true  principles  of  poetry. 

In  Johnson's  Cyclopaedia,  under  'Critic'  and  'Criticism/ 
in  Vapereau's  Dictionnaire  Universel  des  Litteratures,  under 
'  Critique,'  will  be  found  articles  of  merit.  The  article  in 
Vapereau  is  of  some  length. 

On  the  use  of  the  word  KPLTIKOS  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  see  the  citations  from  classical  authors  in  Prof.  A. 
Gudeman's  Outlines  of  the  History  of  Classical  Philology 
(Boston:  1894),  pp.  3,  4. 

For  further  references  on  criticism,  see  Gayley  and  Scott's 
Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Aesthetics  (Berkeley:  1890):  pp.  47- 
49  Histories  of  Art;  pp.  50-53  Treatises  on  the  Arts  in  Gen- 
eral; pp.  53-72  Special  Treatises  on  the  different  Arts, — 
classified  under  Architecture,  Sculpture,  Ceramics,  Painting, 
Engraving,  Etching,  etc.,  and  Music;  pp.  73-107  Literature. 


PAHT    II. HISTORY    OF    CRITICISM. 

§  4.      DIVISION  OF  THE   SUBJECT  AND   STATEMENT  OF   PROBLEMS. 

THE  history  of  criticism  may  be  taken  to  mean  either  of  two 
things  :  The  history  of  the  practice  of  criticism,  or  the  history 
of  critical  theory.  While  the  two  are  intimately  related,  they 
have  not  always  advanced  at  the  same  rate  of  progress,  nor 
developed  along  lines  which  are  exactly  parallel.  For  purposes 
of  study  and  investigation,  therefore,  they  may  be  regarded  as 
measurably  distinct. 

/.  Development  of  Criticism  as  Practice.— A.  For  the 
origin  of  criticism  we  must  go  back  to  very  early  times.  Ex- 
pressions of  approval  or  disapproval  that  may  be  looked  upon 
as  primitive  critical  utterances,  are  found  in  some  of  the  old- 
est monuments  of  literature.  According  to  Mr.  Bosanquet 
(History  of  Aesthetic,  p.  12)  the  following  passage  from  the 
Iliad  (xvii,  548)  on  the  shield  of  Achilles,  is  one  of  the  earliest 
aesthetic  judgments  in  Western  literature  :  "  The  earth  looked 
dark  behind  the  plough,  and  like  to  ground  that  had  been 
ploughed,  although  it  was  made  of  gold  ;  that  was  a  marvellous 
piece  of  work."  (Cf.  Egger,  pp.  1—5.)  Whether  the  Homeric 
poems  contain  criticisms  of  literature,  as  well  as  criticisms  of  art, 
is  a  question  the  student  should  investigate  for  himself.  (See 
Iliad  iii,  300,  and  Mr.  Bosanquet's  observation  on  the  passage, 
Hist,  of  Aesthetic,  p.  102.)  The  Vedas,  the  Nibelungen  Lied, 
Old-English  poetry,  the  Kalevala,  and  other  early  literatures 
may  be  examined  with  the  same  end  in  view. 

The  causes,  psychological  or  social,  which  give  rise  to  ex- 
pressions of  criticism  may  also  be  explored.  These  may  be 


56  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  4,  i. 

brought  out  by  questions  such  as  the  following :  Of  what  is 
criticism  the  outcome  ?  Of  curiosity,  as  held  by  Mr.  Arnold 
(essay  on  Function  of  Criticism)  ?  Of  curiosity  and  self-expres- 
sion combined,  as  suggested  by  Mr.  Robertson  (Essays,  p.  i)  ? 
Of  egotism  ?  Of  wonder  ?  Of  admiration  ?  Of  the  competi- 
tion of  poets  or  schools  of  poets  ?  Of  a  universal  spirit  of  de- 
nial or  pessimism  ?  Or  of  "  a  divine  discontent  "  ?  An  inter- 
esting subject  for  investigation  is  the  question  whether  criticism 
in  literature,  as  in  philosophy  (according  to  Kant),  is  preceded 
by  dogmatism  and  skepticism. 

These  are  questions  to  be  asked  in  specific  cases  when  the 
student  has  the  evidence  before  him. 

B.   The  principle  or  law  of  development  in  the  practice  of 
criticism  should  be  examined  both  deductively  and  inductively. 

1.  Working  deductively,  we  may  inquire  whether  the  nature 
of  criticism  is  such  that  in  its  history  a  law  of  evolution,  or  of 
progression,  or  of  rhythmical  alternation,  is  likely  to  be  exem- 
plified.    Is  it  not  so  bound  up  with  its  object-matter,  litera- 
ture, that  independent  development  is  impossible  ? 

2.  Working  inductively,  we  must  first  determine  what  shall 
be  regarded  as  a  sign   of  advance  in   criticism,  whether  (a) 
increase  in  intellectual  activity ;  (l>)  in  amount  of  production  ; 
(<r)  in  ability  to  deal  adequately  with  past  literature  ;  (</)  in  abil- 
ity to  estimate  the  value  of  current  literature  ;  (e)  in  ability  to 
forecast  the  literary  future  ;  (/)  in  catholicity  of  appreciation  ; 
or  (g)  in  rationality  of  critical  judgment.     Furnished  with  a 
provisional  test  of  this  kind,  we  may  examine  in  chronological 
order  the  critical  utterances  of  a  period  or  a  people,  noting,  as 
we  read,  the  signs  of  progress,  of  retrograde,  or  of  rhythmical 
ebb  and  flow.     The  relation  of  criticism  to  the  character  of  the 
age  and  the  spirit  of  the  people  should  also  receive  attention, 
as  well  as  the  influence  of  a  preceding  age  on  a  following,  and 
of   one    people    upon    another.     Questions   which    should   be 


C-D.}     DEVELOPMENT  OF  CK1T1CISM  AS  PRACTICE.       57 

kept  in  view  are  :  Whether  the  same  principle  of  growth  is  ob- 
served in  all  countries  and  at  all  times  ;  and  whether  this  prin- 
ciple of  growth  is  independent  of,  or  intimately  related  to,  the 
principle  which  determines  the  growth  of  literature. 

C.  STAGES  OF  GROWTH.  —  Critical  practice,  if  it  develops  in 
an  orderly  way,  should  exhibit  well-marked  stages  of  progres- 
sion.    One  kind  or  phase  of  criticism  should  come  into  being, 
rise,  flourish,  decay,  and  pass  into  another  kind  or  phase.     As  a 
fact,  do  such  stages  appear  in  the  history  of  criticism  ?     If  so,  the 
student  should  note  at  what  points  the  lines  of  demarcation  oc- 
cur, and  the  reasons  why  they  occur  where  they  do.     He  should 
observe  whether  criticism  tends  to  pass  from  negative  to  posi- 
tive, from  abstract  to   concrete  ;    and  where   a  succession  of 
stages  has  been  discovered  he  should  endeavor  to  arrive  at  the 
leading  characteristic  of  each.     Such  orders  of  succession  as 
are  indicated  by  the  terms  (i)  Synthetic,  (2)  Analytic,  (3)  Or- 
ganic ;  or  the  terms  (i)  Clan,   (2)  Individual,   (3)  Social,  may 
be  suggested  as  helpful  ;  but  the  student  should  not  adopt  them 
as  working  bases  without  careful,  independent  research. 

It  may  not  be  superfluous  to  suggest  the  following  simple  and 
convenient  chronological  division  :  i.  Ancient,  including  (a) 
Oriental,  (£)  Greek,  (t)  Roman  ;  2.  Mediaeval ;  3.  Renaissance  ; 
4.  Modern. 

D.  DIFFERENTIATION  OF  SPECIES  OF  CRITICISM.  —  A  comparison 
may  be  made  of  different  countries  to  determine  whether  the 
different  kinds  of  criticism  develop  everywhere  in  similar  fash- 
ion.    The   student  should  note  whether  activity  in  one  kind 
of  criticism  is  always  accompanied  by  activity  in  other  kinds. 
The  question  should  also  be  asked  whether  the  various  types 
of  literary  criticism,  as  judicial  and  inductive,  appear  contem- 
poraneously.    Most  writers  who  touch  upon  them  assume  that 
one  follows  and  grows  out  of  the  other,  e.g.,  inductive  follows 
judicial  criticism  (Moulton).     But  is  this  borne  out  by  the  facts  ? 


58  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  4,  i. 

E.  Certain  periods  in  literary  history  are  distinguished  as 
periods  of  great  critical  activity.     Examples  are  the  Alexan- 
drian age  of  Greek  literature,  the  eighteenth  century  in  English 
literature,  the  present  century  in  French  literature.     They  are 
often  set  over  against  periods  of  great  creative  activity,  such  as 
the  age  of  the  tragic  poets  of  Greece  and  the  Elizabethan  age 
of  England.     An  age  of  criticism  is  often  said  to  alternate  with 
an  age   of  creation.     Matthew  Arnold   (On  the   Function  of 
Criticism)  holds  that  critics  set  in  motion  the  ideas  which  the 
creative  writer  makes  use  of  when  his  turn  comes. 

It  will  be  well  to  examine  the  critical  literature  of  so-called 
creative  periods,  in  order  to  determine  the  amount  and  value  of 
it.  In  some  cases  it  will  be  found  more  extensive  and  of  much 
greater  importance  than  is  generally  supposed.  (See  Macaulay, 
Essay  on  Dryden  ;  F.  E.  Schelling,  Criticism  of  the  Reign  of 
Elizabeth  ;  Egger,  Essai  sur  Phistoire  de  la  critique.) 

F.  RELATION  OF  THE  GROWTH  OF  CRITICISM  TO  THE  GROWTH  OF 
LITERATURE.  —  This  topic  presents  for  consideration  two  phases : 
The  effect  of  criticism  on  the  growth  of  literature,  and  the  effect 
of  literature  on  the  growth  of  criticism. 

i.  Criticism,  according  to  some  writers  (Caine,  Arnold, 
Bascom,  Grucker),  can  hasten,  retard,  or  divert  the  currents  of 
literary  energy.  It  can  get  the  ear  of  the  public  for  an  author 
who  would  otherwise  remain  obscure  ;  it  can  hold  back  for 
many  years  the  recognition  due  to  genius  ;  it  can  lead  or  drive 
a  writer  into  modes  of  expression  which,  if  he  were  left  to  his 
own  impulses,  he  would  not  choose  to  cultivate.  By  others  all 
these  statements  are  denied.  Indeed,  the  facts  that  are  brought 
forward  by  one  side  to  prove  the  critic's  power,  are  some- 
times regarded  by  the  other  side  as  evidences  of  his  impo- 
tence. It  may  be  that  both  extremes  are  wrong,  and  that 
the  truth  lies  somewhere  between  them.  Thus,  it  may  be  that 
different  kinds  of  criticism  are  of  different  degrees  of  effective- 


F-G.}     DEVELOPMENT  OF  CRITICISM  AS    THEORY.  59 

ness.  If  negative  criticism  has  no  deterrent  influence,  con- 
structive criticism  may  yet  have  power  to  hasten.  Inductive 
criticism  may  prevail  after  judicial  criticism  has  spent  itself  in 
vain.  (See  Howells,  Robertson,  Sainte-Beuve.) 

2.  Under  the  second  head,  the  influence  of  literature  on 
criticism,  an  interesting  question  is  as  to  the  effect  which  a  new 
and  splendid  work  of  genius  exerts  upon  critical  opinion.  The 
effect  of  Shakespeare's  plays,  of  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  of 
Goethe's  Faust,  of  the  novels  of  Scott,  Dickens,  Thackeray,  and 
George  Eliot,  upon  the  movement  of  European  criticism,  may 
be  studied  in  contemporary  pamphlets,  essays,  and  reviews. 
Another  question  is  whether  critical  practice  lags  behind  liter- 
ary creation.  It  has  been  said  that  the  critic  can  do  no  more 
than  convince  his  generation.  (Robertson,  Essays,  p.  93.)  Is 
this  true?  Has  not  criticism  at  times  outstripped  creative  > 
literature,  so  called  ?  Has  not  some  critic  in  each  epoch  fore-  | 
seen  the  course  of  literary  development  ? 

G.  INFLUENCE  OF  OTHER  MOVEMENTS  OF  THOUGHT  UPON  CRITI- 
CISM. —  How  is  critical  practice  affected  by  movements  in  re- 
ligion ?  In  art  ?  In  industry  ?  In  politics  ?  In  science  ?  In 
education  ?  (On  the  Puritan  element  in  criticism,  see  Robert- 
son, Essays,  pp.  15,  17.) 

//.  Development  of  Criticism  as  Theory.  —  By  criticism  as 
theory  we  mean  the  principles  which  critics  have  brought  for- 
ward as  the  ground  of  their  judgments  or  as  the  basis  of  their 
methods  of  procedure.  As  grounds  of  judgment  they  may  or 
may  not  be  the  same  as  the  principles  of  artistic  or  literary 
practice.  The  critic  may  work  upon  one  principle,  the  artist 
whom  he  criticises  upon  another.  Again,  the  critic's  practice 
may  not  conform  to  his  theory.  (This  charge  has  frequently 
been  brought  against  Taine,  as  by  Brunetiere.  See,  also, 
Robertson's  review  of  Moulton.) 


60  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  4,  //. 

Most  of  the  questions  upon  criticism  as  practice  will  apply 
to  critical  theory  as  well.  The  following  scheme  of  study  is 
presented : 

1.  First  Appearance  of  a  Theory  of  Criticism. — (a)  To  be 
discovered  by  an  examination  of  early  literatures.     What  writer 
first  gives  reasons  for  his  expressions  of  approval  or  disap- 
proval ?     (b~)  What  principles  underlie  the  earliest  criticisms, 
and  why  should  these  principles  get  the  start  of  the  rest  ? 

2.  Provenience  of  Critical  Theories.  —  Where  and  when  did 
the  various  principles  of  criticism   come  into  being  ?     Many 
of  them  have  been  handed  down  from  early  times,  and  trans- 
mitted  from   nation  to   nation   with  the  progress  of  culture. 
Many  are  known  to  be  of  recent  origin.     Possibly  examples 
may  be  found  of  independent  rediscovery  of  old  principles. 

3.  Law  of  Development.  —  Does  the  body  of  critical  theory 
grow  by  accretion  ?     By  the  development  of    contradictions, 
which,  destroying  one  another,  give  place  to  new  principles  ? 
By  the  development  of  specialized  forms,  or  members  with  spe- 
cific functions,  like  a  plant  or  an  animal  ?     Where  seek  for  the 
principle  of  critical  evolution — in  psychology,  anthropology, 
philosophy,   sociology,   or  biology  ?     Mr.    Robertson    (Essays, 
PP-  95 >  96)  suggests  Herbert  Spencer's  law  of  economy  (Essay 
on  Style)  as  a  fundamental  principle  according  to  which  diver- 
gent opinions  tend  to  unanimity. 

4.  Stages  of  Growth.  —  The  stages  of  development  in  art- 
theory  outlined  in  the  general  histories  of  aesthetics,  such  as 
Schasler's  and  Bosanquet's,  may  be  applied  with  little  change 
to  the  history  of  criticism.     (See  §  8.)     The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  periods  or  movements  indicated  in  the  standard  histories 
of  literature.     How  far  do  these  divisions  correspond  to  the 
stages  of  criticism  as  such  ? 

5.  Relation  of  Critical  Theory  to  Literature.  —  Does  criticism 
lay  down  laws  and  principles  for  literature,  or  does  literature 
give  laws  and  principles  to  criticism  ?     (Moulton,  Robertson.) 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  61 

In  the  works  of  reputable  writers  probably  every  critical  theory 
is  exemplified ;  but  which  came  first,  the  theory  or  the  work  ? 
The  question  should  be  answered  by  a  comparative  study  of  the 
literatures  of  several  periods  or  of  several  nationalities. 

6.  Influence  of  Science  upon  Critical  Theory.  —  The  effect  of 
the  scientific  spirit  upon  recent  critical  theories  and  methods, 
as  in  the  case  of  Taine,  Sainte-Beuve,  Brunetiere,  and  Moulton,  / 
is  a  striking  phenomenon.  It  will  be  interesting  to  note  what 
each  of  the  scientific  critics  understands  by  the  term  science, 
and  the  use  each  makes  of  it.  Are  these  theories  really  scien- 
tific or  only  quasi-scientific  ?  Or  perhaps  pseudo-scientific  ? 

///.    Relation  of  Critical  Theory  to  Critical  Practice.  —  The 

main  question  to  be  asked  under  this  head  is  the  following :  In 
the  case  of  any  particular  critic,  how  far  is  his  critical  theory 
adequate  to  the  task  which  he  has  undertaken  ?  A  similar 
question  may  be  asked  with  regard  to  the  critical  literature  of  a 
given  period,  or  of  a  nation.  (See  Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesthetic, 
PP-  4,  15-) 

§5.  REFERENCES. 

ALLEN,  G.     Fortnightly,  37:  339  Decay  of  Criticism. 
See  §  2. 

BAGEHOT,  W.     Literary  Studies.     2  vols.     London  :  1879. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  1-40  The  First  Edinburgh  Reviewers. 
Mainly  concerned  with  the  characteristics  of  Homer,  Jeffrey, 
and  Sydney  Smith. 

BASCOM,  JOHN.     Philosophy  of  English  Literature.     New  York  : 
1893. 

Pp.  155-209  The  Critical  Movement  from  Pope  to  Johnson. 
Beginning  with  a  consideration  of  the  balance  existent  be- 
tween creative  and  critical  periods,  the  author  enters  upon  an 


62  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

inquiry  into  the  causes  that  induced  what  he  calls  the  First 
Critical  Period  in  English  Literature.  This  period  he  divides 
into  a  first  and  a  second  phase  ;  he  discusses  the  relation  of  the 
French  influence,  of  the  classical  influence,  of  the  scientific  and 
political  influences  of  the  age  to  the  incipient  school  of  criti- 
cism, and  exemplifies  by  a  study  of  Swift,  Pope,  Addison,  and 
Steele,  as  critics.  Under  the  second  phase  are  discussed  the 
general  influence  of  theological  inquiry,  and  the  special  influence 
of  Samuel  Johnson  upon  the  litera-ry  temper  of  the  age. 

BINTZ,  J.  Der  Einfluss  der  Ars  Poetica  des  Horaz  auf  die 
deutsche  Literatur  des  xviii.  Jahrhunderts.  Progr.  Ham- 
burg: 1892. 

The  text  of  the  Ars  Poetica,  accompanied  by  copious  foot- 
notes showing  by  whom  and  to  what  purpose  the  text  was  cited 
in  German  literature  of  the  last  century.  The  author  intended 
an  introduction,  but  died  in  the  midst  of  his  labors. 

BOSANQUET,  B.     History  of  Aesthetic. 

Indispensable  to  the  student  of  the  history  of  criticism. 
For  notice  see  §  8. 

BORINSKI,  K.     Die  Poetik  der  Renaissance  und  die  Anfange 

der  litterarischen  Kritik  in  Deutschland.     Berlin  :  1886. 
An  account,  interesting,  and  in  the  main  accurate,  of  the  de- 
velopment   of    poetical    theory    and   criticism   from    Opitz    to 
Gottsched. 

BOURGOIN,   AUGUSTE.     Les    Maitres    de    la    critique    au    xviie 

siecle.     Paris:  1889. 

A  brief  introduction,  pp.  5—15,  discusses  the  criticism  of  the 
seventeenth  century  in  its  general  features.  The  authors 
selected  for  treatment  in  the  body  of  the  work  are  Chapelain, 
Saint-Iwremond,  Boileau,  La  Bruybre,  and  Fe'nelon. 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  63 

BRANDES,  G.     Die  Litteratur  des  igten  Jahrhunderts. 

Bd.  5,  pp.  374-387  Sainte-lteuve  und  die  moderne  Kritik. 
An  interesting  and  valuable  chapter.     Sainte-Beuve  is  looked 
upon  as  the  reformer  of  modern  literary  criticism. 

BRAITMAIER,  FRIEDR.     Geschichte  der  poetischen  Theorie  und 
Kritik   von    den    Discursen    der   Maler  bis   auf    Lessing. 
2  Thl.     Frauenfeld:  1888-9. 
Perhaps  the  best  connected  account  of  this  period  of  German 

criticism. 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.  La  Critique  litte'raire.  Part  of  the  arti- 
cle '  Critique  '  in  the  Grande  Encyclopedie. 
In  the  first  division  of  this  article  M.  Brunetiere  gives  in  brief 
outline  the  history  of  criticism,  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern. 
Ancient  criticism  began  by  observation  of  the  development  and 
the  laws  of  literary  types ;  it  closed  by  furnishing  the  poet  a 
means  of  imitating  models.  Aristotle  was  the  true  founder  of 
criticism.  Others  of  importance  in  ancient  times  were  The- 
ophrastus,  Aristoxenus,  Aristarchus,  Zoilus,  Dionysius  of  Hali- 
carnassus,  Lucius  Aelius  Stilo,  Varro,  Horace,  Cicero,  Tacitus, 
Quintilian,  Plutarch,  Dio  Chrysostom  (whose  Olympic  Discourse 
is  the  first  essay  in  criticism  of  art),  Aristides  the  Orator, 
Hermogenes,  Lucian,  and  Longinus.  In  the  middle  ages  there! 
was  little  criticism,  because  mediaeval  man,  being  a  part  of  his! 
caste  or  corporation,  was  not  master  of  his  ideas.  The  litera- 
ture of  the  middle  ages  is  impersonal,  universal,  anonymous. 
The  only  critics  of  this  period  are  Dante  (in  his  De  vulgari 
Eloquio)  and  Petrarch  (in  his  philological  investigations).  In 
the  Renaissance,  philological  criticism  arose  to  resume  the  inter- 
rupted work  of  the  Alexandrian  school.  In  modern  times  the 
only  country  which  has  had  a  definite  history  of  criticism  is 
France  ;  she  furnishes  the  scheme  for  the  history  of  criticism  in 
all  other  European  countries. 


64  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

In  the  remainder  of  this  part  of  his  article  Brunetiere  traces 
the  history  of  French  criticism,  following  the  same  plan  as  in 
his  L' Evolution  de  la  Critique.  (For  a  notice  of  the  second 
division  of  the  article  see  §  2.) 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.     L' Evolution  des  Genres  dans  1'histoire  de 
la  Litterature.     Tome  ier.     Paris:  1890. 

Pp.    35—278    L'fivolution   de   la   critique    depuis    la   renaissance 
jusqu'a  nos  jours. 

In  a  series  of  lectures  delivered  to  the  students  of  the  ficole 
normale  superieure,  M.  Brunetiere  sketches  with  a  rapid  hand 
the  rise  and  development  of  the  spirit  of  modern  criticism.  He 
finds  it  beginning  in  Italy  in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance.  It 
came  into  existence  as  the  result  of  two  causes  :  (i)  The  redis- 
covery of  the  classics ;  (2)  (following  Burckhardt's  Civilization 
in  Italy)  the  growth  of  the  sense  of  personality.  The  first  led 
to  philological  criticism  of  a  pedantic  kind,  the  second  to  rivalry 
and  envy,  and  so  to  criticism  in  the  sense  of  fault-finding. 
When  criticism  passed  over  into  France,  laying  aside  its  pedan- 
try and  its  satire  it  became  at  first  strictly  literary,  then  in  turn 
aesthetic,  philosophical,  historical,  and  scientific. 

Beginning  with  Joachim  du  Bellay's  Defense  et  illustration  de 
la  langue  franchise,  M.  Brunetiere  takes  up  the  principal  French 
critics  in  chronological  order,  and  assigns  each  his  proper  place. 
Du  Bellay,  by  setting  up  imitation  of  the  ancients  as  the 
standard  of  the  French  language  and  literature,  broke  with 
mediaeval  traditions,  dissevered  national  life  and  national  liter- 
ature, gave  the  norm  to  the  Ple'iade,  and  laid  the  foundation  of 
the  classic  spirit  in  France  which  endures  to  our  day.  Scaliger 
with  his  Poetics  (1607)  set  aside  Greek  models  in  literature  and 
criticism,  and  substituted  for  them  Roman  models  like  the 
Aeneid  and  Horace's  Ars  Poetica.  He  introduced  also  precise 
classifications  and  definitions.  With  Malherbe  criticism  became 
formal ;  regularity,  order,  and  correctness  were  emphasized  at 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  65 

the  expense  of  emotion  and  imagination.  Chapelain  was  the  first 
to  seek  principles  wider  in  their  application  than  the  personal 
impression  of  the  critic.  He  tried,  also,  to  discover  the  '  law  of 
the  type  '  in  the  works  that  he  examined,  though  he  fell  into  the 
error  of  confounding  '  les  lois  '  with  'les  regies.'  Boileau  rep- 
resents the  reaction  of  the  bourgeois  spirit  upon  the  aristocratic 
spirit  in  French  literature.  His  critical  doctrine  is  the  rational 
imitation  of  nature.  Because  he  believed  that  ancient  writers 
best  imitated  nature,  Boileau  taught  imitation  of  the  classics. 
This  part  of  his  doctrine  was  attacked  by  Perrault  in  the  Paral- 
lele  des  Anciens  et  des  Modernes,  and  thus  was  begun  a  con- 
troversy on  the  relative  merits  of  classic  and  contemporary 
literature  which  weakened  faith  in  the  infallibility  of  Boileau's 
principle,  and  resulted  in  a  great  extension  of  the  field  of  criti- 
cism. With  Perrault  came  in  the  ideas  of  naturalism  and  rela- 
tivity, the  first  taking  form  under  the  hands  of  Diderot,  the 
second  culminating  on  the  one  hand  in  the  extreme  individual- 
ism of  Rousseau,  and  on  the  other  in  the  comparative  and  his- 
torical methods  of  Mme.  de  Stael,  Villemain,  Sainte-Beuve,  and 
Taine. 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.     Etudes  critiques  sur  1'histoire  de  la  lit- 

terature  franchise.     5e  Se'r.     Paris  :  1893. 
Contains  (p.  in)   an  admirable  study  of  the  criticism  of 
Bayle.     The  closing  essay,  on  the  essential  character  of  French 
Literature,  will  be  found  indirectly  helpful. 

CAINE,  T.  HALL.     Cobwebs  of  Criticism.     London  :  1883. 

A  popular  account  of  periodical  criticism  in  the  early  part  of 
this  century.  The  picturesque  and  dramatic  features  of  the  at- 
tacks upon  Coleridge,  Keats,  Wordsworth,  and  the  rest  are 
presented  in  a  readable  style.  Of  the  history  of  criticism,  in 
the  sense  of  development,  the  author  has  no  definite  concep- 
tion. Such  statements  as  "  criticism  in  Shakespeare's  day  must 
have  been  an  unknown  quantity,"  and  "it  was  ...  at  the  be- 


66  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

ginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  English  critical  literature, 
properly  so  called,  began,"  testify  to  a  slender  acquaintance 
with  the  history  of  English  critical  literature.  See  the  com- 
ments of  Mr.  Robertson,  Essays,  p.  n,  note. 

CAIRO,  E.     The  Critical  Philosophy  of  Immanuel  Kant. 

Vol.  I,  Chap.  I  The  Idea  of  Criticism. 

See  especially  pp.  2-8,  on  the  Kantian  conception  of  the 
way  in  which  the  critical  stage  is  reached  in  the  development 
of  philosophical  thought. 

CARD,  E.     Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,   i   Fevr.  1882  La  critique  con- 

temporaine  et  les  causes  de  son  affaiblissement. 
Discusses  the  question  whether  modern  criticism  is  retrograd- 
ing.     See  §  2. 

CARTON,    H.      Histoire   de   la   critique   litteraire    en    France. 

Paris:  1886. 

In  a  volume  of  less  than  two  hundred  pages  the  author  at- 
tempts to  cover  the  history  of  criticism  in  France  from  the 
earliest  times  to  the  present.  Beginning  with  Marguerite  of 
Navarre  and  closing  with  M.  Brunetiere,  he  has  space  for  only  a 
few  paragraphs  upon  each  author,  and  as  a  result  his  work  is 
scrappy  and  superficial.  It  is  of  some  value  as  a  list  of  names 
and  works,  though  the  bibliography  is  far  from  complete. 

CHARPENTIER,  J.  P.     La  litte'rature  franchise  au  dix-neuvieme 
siecle.     Paris. 

Pp.  280-297  Critique  (le  second  Empire). 

The  critics  treated  of  are  Sainte-Beuve,  Planche,  Girardin, 
De  Sacy,  Cuvillier-Fleury,  Jules  Janin,  de  Pontmartin,  Veuillot, 
Vitet,  Patin,  and  t.  Egger. 

COAN,  T.  M.     Lippincott,  13  :  355  Critic  and  Artist. 
See  §  2. 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  67 

CROUSL£,   L.     L' Instruction  publique,  1888,  pp.  22,  68,  116, 
23l,  275,  295,  325,  344,  372,  397,  424,  455,  485,  535,  581, 
600,  616,  645,  661,  694,  725   La  critique  au   ig6  siecle. 
Revue  de  1'histoire  de  la  critique  avant  le  ig6  siecle. 
A  brief  history  of  French  criticism  from  Voltaire  to  Sainte- 
Beuve.     The  principal  topics  treated  of  are  the  following  :   The 
critics  of  Voltaire's  school,  —  Marmontel  and  La  Harpe  ;  Vol- 
taire judged  by  his  disciples  ;  La  Harpe  as  critic  of  Voltaire  ; 
M.-J.  Che'nier ;    critics   of   the    classic  school ;    critics   of   the 
romantic  school;  the  independents,  —  Villemain    and    Sainte- 
Beuve. 

CRUGER,  JOH.     J.  C.  Gottsched  und  die  Schweizer.     Berlin : 

1884. 
A  useful  and  trustworthy  account. 

DEMOGEOT,  J.-C.     La  critique  et  les  critiques  en  France  au  xixe 
siecle.     Paris:  1857. 

DOWDEN,  E.  Fortnightly,  52  :  737  Literary  Criticism  in  France. 
Treats  in  an  interesting  way  French  criticism  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  nineteenth  century.  The  system  and  methods  of 
Nisard,  Sainte-Beuve,  Taine,  Bourget,  Brunetiere,  and  fimile 
Hennequin  are  clearly  set  forth. 

EGGER,  E\     Essai  sur  1'histoire  de  la  critique  chez  les  Grecs. 

2e  e'd.     Paris:  1886. 

Intended  as  an  introduction  to  a  course  in  Greek  literature, 
the  first  edition  of  this  scholarly  work,  published  in  1849,  con- 
sisted mainly  of  a  translation  of  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle.  A 
sketch  of  the  history  of  criticism  among  the  Greeks,  which  it 
also  contained,  was  intended  merely  to  throw  light  upon  the 
Poetics.  In  succeeding  editions  the  history  grew  in  impor- 
tance until  in  the  last  and  posthumous  edition  the  translation 
disappeared,  and  the  history  became  the  main  idea  of  the 
book. 


68  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

According  to  the  author  the  term  critique  is  used  by  him  in 
the  sense  of  esthetique ;  but  the  work  is  not,  as  one  might  infer 
from  this  statement,  a  general  history  of  aesthetics ;  it  is  a  his- 
tory only  of  the  aesthetics  of  literature.  The  main  divisions 
are  as  follows :  Criticism  before  the  Philosophers  (the  Rhap- 
sodes, Homeric  Criticism,  the  Comic  Writers);  Criticism  among 
the  Philosophers  before  Aristotle ;  Aristotle ;  Criticism  after 
Aristotle  (including  the  history  of  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle  in 
the  Middle  Ages  and  among  the  Arabs).  A  conclusion,  all  too 
brief,  touches  upon  the  relation  of  Hellenism  to  Oriental 
thought.  The  grace  and  lucidity  of  the  author's  style  make 
the  work  delightful  reading. 

FELLNER,  R.     Deutsche  Rundschau,  75:464  Die  neuere  fran- 

zosische  Kritik. 

A  review  and  exposition  of  Tissot's  Les  evolutions  de  la 
critique  franchise. 

GOLDSMITH,  O.     Present  State  of  Polite  Learning. 

In  chapter  X  Goldsmith  gives  his  opinions  of  the  critics  and 
criticism  of  his  time. 

GATES,    LEWIS    E.      Selections   from    the    Essays   of    Francis 

Jeffrey.     Boston:  1894. 

In  his  introduction  the  editor  shows  how  Jeffrey  developed 
ethical  criticism,  and  made  use  of  the  historical  method. 

GRUCKER,  £MILE.     Histoire  des  doctrines  litteraires  et  esthe'- 

tiques  en  Allemagne.     Paris:  1883. 

A  voluminous  work  dealing  with  Opitz,  Leibnitz,  Gottsched, 
and  the  Swiss,  —  Bodmer,  Breitinger,  Liscow,  and  Pyra.  The 
author's  estimate  of  the  work  of  these  critics  is  summed  up  as 
follows :  "  The  dogmatic  and  abstract  criticism  which  began 
with  Opitz  and  closed  with  Gottsched,  founded  on  the  author- 
ity of  masters,  on  the  traditions  of  Latin  antiquity  and  the 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  69 

Renaissance,  on  the  imitation  of  French  models,  accomplished 
its  work.  It  saved  German  literature  from  anarchy  and  barbar- 
ism. It  purified,  established,  and  fixed  the  national  tongue. 
It  gave  to  poetry  rules,  precepts,  and  a  discipline  ;  it  was  the 
first  instructress  of  the  German  spirit." 

HARRIS,  JAS.     Philological  Inquiries.     2  vols.     London:  1781. 
See  §  2. 

HATZFIELD,  A.,  et  GEORGES  MEUNIER.     Les  Critiques  litteraires 

du  xixe  siecle.     Paris  :  1894. 

Brief  notices  of  leading  French  critics,  with  extracts  from 
their  writings. 

KRANTZ,  £.     Essai  sur  1'esthe'tique  de  Descartes.    Paris :  1882. 
On  pp.  1-6  the  author  treats  briefly,  but  suggestively,  of  the 
relation  of  criticism  to  the  development  of  literature. 

MABIE,  H.  W.     Andover  Rev.,  15:  583  Significance  of  Modern 
Criticism. 

See  §  2. 
MACAULAY,  T.  B.     Essays. 

See  §  2. 

MAZZARELLA,  B.     Delia  Critica  libri  tre.     Vol.  I,  Storia  della 

critica.     Genova :  1866. 

A  very  unsatisfactory  book,  prolix  in  style  and  defective  in 
arrangement;  yet  noteworthy  as  almost  a  solitary  attempt 
at  a  history  of  literary  criticism  from  the  Greeks  to  the 
present  time.  Having  little  sense  of  perspective,  the  author 
has  given  disproportionate  space  to  writers  of  small  moment. 
He  has  brought  together,  however,  a  mass  of  curious  learning 
for  which  other  students  may  be  thankful.  Two  promised  vol- 
umes, one  on  the  science  and  the  other  on  the  art  of  criticism, 
seem  not  to  have  been  published. 


70  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

MERLET,  G.    Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  Oct.  1883     La  critique  sous 

le  premier  empire. 

To  be  read  in  connection  with  Sainte-Beuve's  paper  on  the 
same  subject.  The  critics  treated  of  are  Geoffrey,  Francois 
Hoffman,  Dussault,  and  M.  de  Feletz. 

MOULTON,  R.  G.  Shakespeare  as  a  Dramatic  Artist.  2d  ed. 
Oxford:  1888. 

On  pp.  7-21  Mr.  Moulton  maintains  the  thesis  that  "the 
whole  history  of  criticism  has  been  a  triumph  of  authors  over 
critics,"  and  to  prove  it  reviews  the  course  of  criticism  from  the 
renaissance  to  the  present  time,  dwelling  mainly  upon  the  his- 
tory of  Shakespeare  criticism.  The  order  of  progression  has 
been  from  judicial  to  inductive,  criticism  passing  through  five 
distinct  stages.  There  was  first  the  idea  of  judging  solely  by 
classic  standards,  as  in  the  instance  of  Rymer's  attack  upon 
Shakespeare.  The  second  stage  was  reached  when  literature 
of  the  modern  type  was  admitted  to  have  merit,  though  '  con- 
trary to  rule';  a  third  stage  when  the  classics  and  the  moderns 
were  put  side  by  side,  as  in  the  '  Parallels '  of  Perrault.  In  the 
fourth  stage,  illustrated  by  Addison,  the  idea  of  judging,  tossed 
about  between  two  standards,  began  to  change  to  the  idea  of  a 
search  for  beauty.  Finally  has  come  the  fifth  or  inductive 
stage,  when  literature,  just  as  it  stands,  is  analyzed  for  the  pur- 
pose of  discovering  its  underlying  principles.  Inductive  criti- 
cism (pp.  266,  267)  also  has  its  stages  :  First,  mere  observation  ; 
then  analysis  and  topical  arrangement ;  finally,  systematization  ; 
but  the  criticism  of  literature  has  never  gone  beyond  the  second 
stage. 

For  comment,  see  Robertson's  Essays,  p.  51  ff. 

NETTLESHIP,  H.  Journ.  of  Philology,  18:225  Literary  Criti- 
cism in  Latin  Antiquity. 

Traces  the  growth  of  criticism  from  Cicero  to  Quintilian. 
An  admirable  paper. 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  71 

NISARD,    D.      Histoire    de    la   litterature   franchise.      4   vols. 

Paris:  1844-9. 

See  vol.  IV,  pp.  568-573,  for  an  excellent  account  of  the 
criticism  of  the  i8th  century. 

PATIN,  H.  J.  G.     fitudes  sur  les  tragiques  grecs. 

Vol.  II,  P.  415. 

Criticism,  as  it  advances,  passes  through  the  following  stages: 
(i)  Nai've  feeling;  (2)  reflection;  (3)  theories  of  criticism, 
which  may  be  drawn  (a)  from  experience,  or  (b)  from  specula- 
tive views  as  to  the  means  and  end  of  art. 

PERRY,  T.  S.  English  Literature  in  the  i8th  Century.  New 
York:  1883. 

Pp.  164-174. 

The  author  writes  entertainingly  on  Addison's  criticisms  of 
Milton,  and  on  the  critical  spirit  of  the  i8th  century  in  its 
relation  to  Aristotle's  Poetics  and  Horace's  Ars  Poetica. 

PELLISSIER,  G.  Le  mouvement  litteraire  au  xixe  siecle.  2e  ed. 
Paris:  1890. 

A  work  of  unusual  merit.  It  contains  two  chapters  on  the 
criticism  of  the  century,  of  which  one  (pp.  213-231)  treats  of 
romantic  and  the  other  (pp.  305-321)  of  realistic  criticism. 
The  characteristic  of  the  classic  criticism  was  that  it  made 
rigid  application  of  fixed  laws  and  formulas.  The  romantic 
criticism,  taking  the  historical  point  of  view,  interpreted  litera- 
ture as  a  picture  of  society.  Later,  the  literary  work  became  a 
mere  '  document '  for  the  study  of  mankind. 

The  writers  selected  for  treatment  are  Mme.  de  Stael,  Ville- 
main,  Nisard,  Sainte-Beuve,  Taine,  and  Renan. 

PESCHIER.     Herrig's  Archiv,  n  :  294  Des  Phases  de  la  critique 

en  France. 

A  rapid  sketch  of  the  history  of  French  criticism  in  the  i7th 
and  1 8th  centuries. 


72  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

POPE,  A.     Essay  on  Criticism. 

Lines  643-744  are  devoted  to  a  history  of  criticism  and  to 
characterizations  of  famous  critics  of  ancient  and  modern  times. 
It  is  interesting  to  note  those  whom  Pope  selected  for  this 
history,  and  still  more  interesting  to  note  those  whom  he 
omitted.  "  The  mighty  Stagirite  first  left  the  shore,"  followed 
by  Horace,  Dionysius,  Petronius  Arbiter,  Quintilian  and  Lon- 
ginus,  who  complete  the  list  of  ancient  critics.  After  these 
criticism  fell  into  decay,  but  revived  with  Erasmus,  and  reached 
a  high  plane  in  the  Art  of  Poetry  of  '  immortal  Vida.'  In 
France  the  critical  impulse  was  transmitted  to  Boileau ;  in 
England  to  Roscommon  and  Walsh. 

PORTER,  N.     Books  and  Reading.     N.  Y.:   1876. 

In  chapters  XVII  and  XVIII,  on  the  New  Criticism,  is  an 
estimate  of  the  influence  of  German  upon  English  criticism, 
and  a  brief  sketch  of  the  course  of  criticism  in  England. 

QUARTERLY  REVIEW,  175:  102  The  Porson  of  Shakespearian 

Criticism. 

Theobald  is  reinstated  in  his  rights  as  a  master  of  Shake- 
spearian criticism.  An  interesting  comparison  is  made  between 
him  and  Bentley,  and  incidentally  light  is  thrown  up«n  the 
course  of  criticism  in  the  eighteenth  century. 

RENARD,  GEORGES.     Les  Princes  de  la  jeune  critique.     Paris : 

1890.     (Libr.  de  la  Nouvelk  Revue?) 

The  'princes'  are  Jules  Lemaitre,  Ferd.  Brunetiere,  Anatole 
France,  L.  Ganderax,  P.  Bourget. 

RIGAULT,    H.     Histoire    de    la   querelle    des    anciens   et   des 

modernes.     Paris:  1856. 

The  standard  history  of  this  famous  episode  in  modern  criti- 
cism. 


S  5.J  REFERENCES.  73 

ROBERTSON,  J.  M.     Essays  towards  a  Critical  Method. 
See  §  2. 

The  author  suggests  (pp.  40-42)  that  the  movement  of  criti- 
cism is  rhythmical  in  character,  yet  tending  to  ever  greater 
universality.  Until  recent  times  the  aim  of  critics  has  been  to 
secure  consistency  of  dictum  within  a  very  limited  field.  This 
is  illustrated  by  the  systems  of  criticism  evolved  in  the  lyth 
and  1 8th  centuries.  Collision  of  dicta,  however,  the  result  of 
differences  of  taste,  induced  a  general  distrust,  with  the  result 
that  men  turned  from  writings  about  literature  to  literature 
itself.  Thus  the  inductive  criticism  came  into  being.  But  in- 
ductive criticism  must  give  way  in  time  to  a  new  process  of 
judgment,  founded  on  comparative  aesthetics  and  comparative 
sociology  ;  in  other  words,  consistency  of  dictum,  which  in  the 
eighteenth  century  could  be  secured  only  within  a  narrow  circle, 
will  at  some  time  in  the  future  be  secured  within  a  circle  of 
great  circumference.  The  criterion  of  consistency  is  "  that 
universal  logic  by  which  facts  and  principles  are  settled  in  nat- 
ural science."  The  reasonable  attitude  towards  criticism  is 
the  attitude  of  research. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  C.  A.     M.  de  Fe'letz  et  de  la  critique  litte'raire 
sous  1'empire.     Causeries  de  Lundi,  25  Fevr.  1850. 
See  §  2. 

SAINTSBURY, G.     Essays  in  English  Literature.    London:  1890. 
Pp.  100-134  Jeffrey. 

SAINTSBURY,  G.     History  of  Elizabethan  Literature.     London: 

1887. 

On  pp.  33-35  Saintsbury  refers,  in  passing,  to  the  remarka- 
ble school  of  critics  which  sprang  up  amid  the  creative  activity 
of  the  time. 


74  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

SCHELLING,  F.  E.  Poetic  and  Verse  Criticism  of  the  Reign  of 
Elizabeth.  Philadelphia:  1891.  (Pubs,  of  the  Univ.  of  Penn- 
sylvania, Series  in  Philol.,  Literature,  and  Archaeol.,  I,  i.) 

A  '  plain  exposition '  of  the  theories  of  poetry,  and  especially 
of  versification,  which  were  evolved  in  England  between  1507 
and  1603,  contemporary  estimates  of  poets  and  poetry  being 
purposely  excluded.  While  the  order  of  treatment  is  mainly 
chronological  by  authors,  three  classes  of  criticisms  are  distin- 
guished: (i)  Attempts  to  apply  to  English  poetry  the  princi- 
ples of  classical  prosody  (Ascham,  Harvey,  Webbe,  and  Cam- 
pion) ;  (2)  attempts  to  formulate  inductively  the  rules  of  existing 
English  prosody  (Gascoigne,  James  I);  (3)  treatises  on  the 
wide  field  of  poetical  theory  (Puttenham,  Sidney).  Sidney  is 
regarded  as  the  sole  representative  of  "  that  broader  criticism 
which  has  founded  modern  criticism." 

SCHERER,  EDM.     fitudes  critiques. 

See  vol.  I,  p.  171,  of  these  valuable  essays,  for  a  study  of 
Nisard;  p.  321  for  a  study  of  Sainte-Beuve.  On  Taine's  place 
in  the  history  of  criticism,  see  vol.  II,  p.  in;  vol.  IV,  p.  253. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.     The  Nature  of  Poetry.     Boston:  1892. 

The  passing  references  to  modern  criticism  may  be  traced 
by  means  of  the  index. 

STEDMAN,  E.  C.     Poets  of  America.     Boston:  1885. 

Of  value  in  the  study  of  American  Criticism.     See  the  Index. 

STEPHEN,  L.  History  of  English  Thought  in  the  i8th  Century. 
2  vols.  New  York:  1876. 

Vol.  I,  p.  34. 

Invaluable  as  a  guide  to  the  movements  of  English  thought 
which  determined  the  growth  of  English  literary  criticism. 


§  5.]  REFERENCES.  75 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Essays  speculative  and  suggestive.     2  vols. 

London:  1890. 

In  the  essay  On  some  Principles  of  Criticism  (vol.  I,  pp.  84- 
123),  the  author  touches  here  and  there  upon  the  history  of 
critical  efforts.  He  distinguishes  three  stages,  which  he  calls 
classical,  romantic,  and  scientific  criticism  (pp.  96-98).  The 
passages  describing  the  origin  and  rise  of  modern  criticism 
(pp.  109-114)  are  of  special  interest. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Greek  Poets.     2d  ser. 

P.  303  Greek  Criticism, 

Gives  the  attitude  of  the  Alexandrian  critics  towards  Greek 
literature. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     The  Renaissance  in  Italy. 

Contains  full  and  excellent  accounts  of  critics  and  critical 
movements  of  the  Renaissance.  These  may  be  traced  by 
means  of  the  index. 

THERY,  AUG.     Histoire  des  opinions  litteraires  chez  les  anciens 
et  chez  les  modernes.     Nouvelle  e'd.     2  vols.     Paris:  1849. 

TISSOT,   ERNEST.     Les    Evolutions   de    la   critique   franchise. 

Paris:  1890. 

In  some  respects  an  admirable  work,  though  not  what  its 
title  would  lead  the  reader  to  expect.  Purporting  to  be  a  his- 
tory of  criticism,  it  is  in  reality  a  classification  of  critics. 
Tissot  distinguishes  three  types  of  modern  criticism  :  Literary, 
of  which  Brunetiere  and  Jules  Lemaitre  are  representatives ; 
moralizing,  represented  by  Barbey  d'Aurevilly  and  Edmond 
Scherer  ;  analytic,  as  seen  in  the  writings  of  Taine,  Bourget, 
and  fimile  Hennequin.  Literary  criticism  judges  a  work  ac- 
cording to  set  rules  or  dogmas,  without  reference  to  historical 
development.  The  aim  of  the  moralizing  criticism  is  suggested 
by  its  name,  —  it  judges  according  to  ethical  standards.  The 


76  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  5. 

analytic  criticism,  taking  into  account  both  the  aesthetic  and 
the  sociological  aspects  of  the  work,  makes  special  search  for 
the  spiritual  environment  in  which  it  came  to  birth.  Like  most 
attempts  at  hard-and-fast  classifying,  Tissot's  threefold  division 
breaks  down  in  practical  application,  but  this  fact  does  not 
greatly  diminish  its  value,  which  lies  in  its  felicitous  characteri- 
zations of  individual  critics. 

VILLEMAIN,  A.  F.     Discours  et  melanges  litteraires.    P.  29  Dis- 

cours  sur  ...  la  critique. 

Contains  a  brief  sketch  of  the  history  of  criticism,  with  char- 
acterization of  the  most  important  authors. 

VILLARI,  P.     Nuova  Antologia,  1884-1!!:  73   Francesco   De 

Sanctis  e  la  critica  in  ftalia. 

A  good  account  of  the  work  and  influence  of  this  leading 
Italian  critic. 

WYLIE,  LAURA  JOHNSON.     Studies  in  the  Evolution  of  English 

Criticism.     Boston  :- 1894. 

This  little  work,  a  doctoral  thesis,  covers  the  period  from 
1660  to  the  close  of  the  first  quarter  of  this  century.  Its  plan 
and  scope  may  be  inferred  from  the  subjects  of  the  chapters, 
as  follows  :  I.  John  Dryden ;  II.  The  Evolution  out  of  Classi- 
cism ;  III.  The  German  Sources  of  Coleridge's  Criticism; 
IV.  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge.  In  style  and  method  the  writer 
shows  the  influence,  perhaps,  of  Brunetiere's  L'eVolution  de  la 
critique  in  her  fondness  for  large  generalizations  and  for  rhe- 
torical indirectness  of  statement,  but  her  ideas  are,  in  the  main, 
her  own,  and  her  conclusions  are  based  upon  much  original 
research.  The  writer  was  fortunate  in  being  equipped  with  a 
working  knowledge  of  the  history  of  aesthetics. 


GENERAL   NOTE.  77 


.  §  6.     GENERAL    NOTE. 

In  studying  the  history  of  a  particular  period  of  criticism, 
the  student  will  of  course  consult  the  standard  histories  of  lit- 
erature as  well  as  monographs  upon  individual  critics.  These 
are  too  numerous  to  be  cited  here.  On  Methods  see  Chapter  V. 

In  Chapter  VI  the  names  and  works  of  those  who  are 
esteemed  most  important  as  contributors  to  critical  theory  or  to 
critical  practice  are  given  in  their  chronological  sequence. 

The  following  references  are  of  less  importance  than'  the 
foregoing,  or  deal  with  individual  critics : 

On  the  History  of  French  Criticism.  —  A.  Bettelheim,  Maga- 
zin  f.  d.  Litteratur  d.  In-  und  Auslandes,  1888  :  256-258  Neuere 
franzosische  Kritiker;  A.  Caumont,  La  critique  litteraire  de 
Sainte-Beuve  {Frankf.  Neuphilol.  Beitrdge  1-29,  Frankfurt 
a.  M.:  1887);  Em.  Des  Essarts,  L'Instruction  publique  1888: 
675-677  Boileau  devant  la  critique  moderne ;  G.  Lanson,  Revue 
Bletie  27  Janvier  1894  Critiques  d'aujourd'hui:  fimile  Faguet; 
G.  Pellissier,  Essais  de  litterature  contemporaine  (Paris  :  1893), 
La  doctrine  de  F.  Brunetiere ;  G.  Planche,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes 
1835  (4e  ser.,  vol.  I):  5  De  la  critique  franchise  en  1835;  A.  A. 
J.  M.  F.  de  Pontmartin,  Correspondant  N.S.,  48  :  5  La  critique 
en  1871;  P.  Stapfer,  Rev.  pol.  et  lit.  3e  sdr.  xiv:  297-303 
Poetes  et  critiques  du  xixe  siecle;  A.  P.  Soupe,  Rei>.  Contemp. 
5  (1868):  496,  6  :  5  Precurseurs de  la  critique  moderne  :  Grimm; 
G.  Renard,  Nouvelle  Revue  57  :  704-729  Brunetiere;  J.  B. 
Stiernet,  Muse'on  10:  122  L'evolution  de  la  critique  (a  review 
of  Brunetiere's  work  of  the  same  title) ;  E\  Zola,  Documents 
litteraires  (Nouv.  dd.;  Paris :  1894),  p.  333  La  critique  con- 
temporaine (A  scathing  review  of  modern  criticism);  Louis  de 
Lome'nie,  Esquisses  historiques  de  litte'rature  (Paris:  1879), 
p.  221  Chateaubriand  et  la  critique;  G.  Larroumet,  fitudes  de 
litterature  et  d'art  (Paris:  1893),  p.  347  Brunetiere,  p.  83  Le 


78  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  6. 

xviiie  siecle  et  la  critique  contemporaine;  C.  A.  Sainte-Beuve, 
Revue  d.  D.  Mondes,  Dec.  1835  Bayle  et  le  genie  critique  ; 
J.  F.  Boissonade,  Critique  litteraire  sous  le  premier*  empire 
(Paris:  1863);  A.  de  Pontmartin,  Derniers  Samedis  (IIIe  ser. 
Paris:  1892)  Brunetiere;  E\  Faguet,  Revue  de  Paris,  i  Fevr. 
1894  Ferdinand  Brunetiere  (The  impersonal  element  is  the  most 
striking  characteristic  of  Brunetiere's  criticism);  G.  Planche, 
Revue  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  Janvier  1835  De  la  critique  frangaise  en 
1835;  P-  Lirnayrac,  Revtte  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  Sept.  1847  De 
1'esprit  critique  en  France. 

An  interesting  collection  of  critical  judgments,  illustrating  the 
progress  of  French  criticism,  will  be  found  in  the  work  of 
R.  P.  Chauvin  and  G.  Le  Bidois,  La  Litterature  franchise  par 
les  critiques  contemporains  (Paris:  1887).  Among  the  authors 
from  whom  specimens  are  drawn  are  Villemain,  Sainte-Beuve, 
St.-Marc  Girardin,  Nisard,  H.  Rigault,  Lemaitre,  Vinet,  Taine, 
Paul  Albert,  Brunetiere,  and  Faguet. 

On  the  History  of  English  Criticism. — -  Fraser,  21  :  190  The 
Present  State  of  Literary  Criticism  in  England  (1840);  Fraser, 
28  (1843):  43  Jeffrey  and  Gifford  vs.  Shakespeare  and  Milton  ; 
Blackwood,  2  (1818):  670  Remarks  on  the  Periodical  Criticism 
of  England ;  H.  Hettner,  Geschichte  der  englischen  Literatur 
(Braunschweig:  1856),  p.  415  Die  psychologische  Aesthetiker, 
Burke,  Gerard,  Home;  p.  420  Die  Kritik  S.Johnson's;  Retro- 
spective Review,  vol.  I,  pt..II,  p.  305  Nature  and  Effects  of  Mod- 
ern Criticism  (a  review  of  the  writings  of  John  Dennis);  H.  T. 
Tuckerman,  Characteristics  of  Literature  illustrated  by  the 
Genius  of  Distinguished  Writers  (Philadelphia :  1851),  pp.  216- 
238  The  Critic :  Hazlitt. 

A  collection  of  criticisms  upon  noted  English  writers  has 
been  made  by  E.  Stevenson,  under  the  title  Early  Reviews  of 
Great  Writers  (London:  1890;  Camelot  series).  The  extracts 
cover  the  years  1786-1832,  and  include  critiques  upon  the  Vicar 
of  Wakefield,  Burns,  and  the  Lyrical  Ballads. 


§6.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  79 

On  the  History  of  German  Criticism. — O.  Wichmann,  L'Art 
poetique  de  Boileau  dans  celui  de  Gottsched  (Berlin  :  1879); 
R.  Weitbrecht,  Blatter/,  litt.  Unterhaltung  1891-1!:  625  Krit- 
iker  und  Dichter.  For  Gerhard  Voss,  Opitz,  Gottsched,  Breitin- 
ger,  Baumgarten,  Sulzer,  Eberhard,  Solger,  Lessing,  Schiller, 
Goethe,  Herder,  Richter,  Tieck,  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  and  later 
authorities  on  criticism  and  its  history,  see,  below,  §  21,  B  3, 
The  Development  of  Poetics  in  Germany. 

On  the  History  of  Italian  Criticism.  —  L.  Ceci,  Ateneo  Ro- 
magnolo  1882,  Nos.  9,  10  Un'  occhiata  allo  svolgimento  storico 
della  critica  letteraria  e  politica  del  seicento  (Firenze  :  1878); 
G.  Trezza,  La  critica  moderna  (2a  ed.,  con  aggiunte,  Bologna  : 
1880);  L.  Morandi,  Antologia  della  nostra  critica  letteraria 
moderna  (4*  ed.,  Citta  di  Castello  :  1889);  P.  Ferrieri,  Francesco 
De  Sanctis  e  la  critica  letteraria  (Milano :  1888).  See  §  21,  B  5. 

On  the  History  of  Spanish  Criticism.  —  F.  F.  Gonzalez,  His- 
toria  de  la  critica  literaria  en  Espafia  (Madrid:  1867);  M. 
Menendez  y  Pelayo,  Historia  de  las  ideas  esteticas  en  Espana 
(5  vols.  in  8  ;  Madrid:  1883-91).  See  §  21,  B  5. 

For  brief  accounts  of  Russian  and  Danish  critics,  consult 
Wm.  Knight's  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Part  II  (London  : 
1893),  pp.  251—272,  and  273—281. 

In  De  Gids  for  April-May,  1891,  will  be  found  an  able  arti- 
cle by  Polak  on  Huet  and  Potgieter,  the  two  greatest  literary 
critics  of  Holland. 


CHAPTER    II. 

PRINCIPLES    OF   ART. 


PART  I. — THEORY  OF  ART. 

§  7.      STATEMENT   OF   PROBLEMS  ;    ANALYSIS. 

STUDY  of  the  underlying  principles  of  literature  leads  the 
student  back  inevitably  to  the  principles  of  art.  The  principles 
of  literature,  he  finds,  are  but  special  applications  of  the 
broader  principles  which  lie  at  the  base  of  all  the  arts. 

It  would  seem  desirable,  therefore,  that  the  student  early 
in  his  course  should  gain  clear  and  right  notions  regarding  the 
fundamental  conceptions  of  aesthetics.  Familiar  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  broader  science,  he  should  be  better  prepared 
to  work  within  the  limits  of  the  narrower.  From  a  study 
of  writings  on  the  theory  of  art  he  should  gain  a  power  to  dis- 
criminate among  writings  on  the  theory  of  literature  ;  he  should 
be  enabled  to  detect  the  hidden  bases  of  literary  principles  or 
precepts ;  he  should  be  enabled  to  judge  independently  of  the 
source  and  value  of  traditional  literary  doctrines. 

Aesthetics  is  a  large  subject.  None  but  a  specialist  can  hope 
to  master  it  in  all  its  extent,  and  but  few  can  hope  to  keep 
abreast  of  the  active  discussions  and  investigations  that  are 
going  on  at  present.  Nevertheless,  complex  and  difficult  as 
the  subject  appears,  its  fundamental  principles  are  simple  and 
its  main  problems  few.  Further,  as  in  many  other  branches 
of  knowledge,  a  thorough  study  of  some  one  problem  or  prin- 
ciple will  put  the  student  in  possession  of  all  the  rest.  The 


§7,7.]  FUNDAMENTAL   PROBLEMS.  81 

following  are  suggested  as  some  of  the  important  questions 
likely  to  arise  in  a  search  for  the  fundamental  principle  of  art. 

/.  Fundamental  Problems.  —  (i)  What  is  the  relation  of  Art 
to  Nature  ?  (2)  What  is  the  relation  of  Art  to  Imitation  ? 
(3)  What  is  Beauty  ?  (4)  Is  Beauty  subjective  or  objective,  or 
both  ?  (5)  How  is  the  Beautiful  related  to  the  Sublime,  the 
Ludicrous,  the  Pathetic,  the  Comic,  and  the  Tragic  ?  (6)  What 
is  the  function  of  the  Imagination  in  Art  ?  (7)  What  are  the 
Aesthetic  Emotions  ?  (8)  What  is  the  purpose  of  Art  ?  (9) 
What  part  is  played  in  the  theory  of  Art  by  Pleasure  ?  By  the 
Play-impulse  ?  Rhythm  ?  Harmony  ?  Regularity  ?  Economy  ? 
(10)  What  is  the  relation  of  Art  to  Science,  Morals,  and  Re-/ 
ligion  ?  (i  i)  Can  Art  be  useful  ?  (12)  What  are  the  principal 
classifications  of  Art  ?  (13)  Upon  what  basis  of  differentiation 
do  these  classifications  rest?  (14)  If  there  is  a  hierarchy  of 
the  Arts,  upon  what  principle  does  it  rest?  (15)  What  is  the 
function  of  Taste  ?  (16)  What  determines  the  validity  and 
the  limitations  of  canons  of  Art  ? 

The  answers  to  these  questions  may  be  sought  in  the  au- 
thorities mentioned  under  §§  8  and  9. 

//.  Minute  Analysis  of  Problems.  —  For  those  who  desire 
to  go  more  profoundly  into  the  subject  the  following  analysis  is 
presented. 

The  problems  of  aesthetics  may  be  classified  under  four 
heads:  (i)  Physiological  problems,  (2)  psychological  problems, 
(3)  speculative  problems,  (4)  social  problems.  It  is  not  easy, 
perhaps  not  desirable,  to  keep  the  four  classes  wholly  distinct ; 
consequently,  in  the  statement  of  the  problems,  some  overlap- 
ping may  be  expected. 

A.  PHYSIOLOGICAL  PROBLEMS.  —  The  general  problem  of  physi- 
ological aesthetics  may  be  stated  in  this  way  :  What  is  the 
origin,  nature,  and  physical  explanation  of  the  aesthetic  thrill  ? 


82  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  7,  //. 

As  the  inquiry  usually  proceeds  upon  the  assumption  that  aes- 
thetic feeling  is  a  species  of  pleasurable  feeling,  the  line  of 
research  is  in  the  direction  of  differentiating  this  kind  of  sen- 
suous pleasure  from  sensuous  pleasure  in  general.  Thus  the 
following  series  of  subsidiary  problems  arises : 

(1)  What  changes  in  the  nervous  system,  resulting  from  the 
application  of  stimuli,  produce  the  sensation  of  pleasure  ? 

(2)  (a)  What  class  of  objects  supply  these  stimuli  ?     (^)  What 
are  the  attributes  of  these  objects  ?     (c)  Do  dissimilar  qualities 
furnish  the  same  result,  or  is  there  some  one  quality,  existing 
in  different  forms,  in  all  objects  that  occasion  pleasure  ? 

(3)  Is  the  relation  between  the  stimulus  and  the  pleasurable 
feeling  necessary  and  invariable,  or  accidental  and  mutable  ? 

(4)  How  are  pleasurable  feelings  related  to  the  vital  functions  ? 

(5)  (a)  What  quality  in  the  stimulus,  or  (/>)  what  modification 
of  the  neural  process  occasions  the  aesthetic  quality  of  the 
feeling  ? 

(6)  What  are  the  preeminently  aesthetic  senses  ? 
Assuming  that  hearing  and  seeing  are  the  only,  or  the  pre- 
eminently, aesthetic  senses,  the  physiologist  may  inquire :  — 

(7)  What  in  the  nervous  structure  and  function  of  the  ear  cor- 
responds to  the  relations  of  tones  constituting  the  musical  scale  ? 
To  the  relations  of  tones  constituting  harmony  or  discord  ? 

(8)  What  are  the  exact  mathematical  relations  of  such  tones  ? 
(See  Helmholtz.) 

(9)  What  are  the  neural  equivalents  of  rhythm  and  melody  ? 

(10)  What  colors  and  combinations  of  colors  are  pleasing  to 
the  eye  ?     (See  Allen's  Color  Sense.) 

(n)  What  forms  and  proportions  of  objects  are  pleasing? 

(12)  What  movements  of  the  eye  and  modifications  of  its 
neural  processes  correspond  to  pleasing  forms  and  colors  of 
objects  ? 

(13)  What  are  the  neural  equivalents  of  contrast,  climax, 
and  effective  anti-climax  ? 


£.]  MINUTE   ANALYSIS   OF  PROBLEMS.  83 

(14)  Is  pain  a  necessary  accompaniment,  or  condition  pre- 
cedent, of  aesthetic  feeling  ? 

On  these  problems  the  student  may  consult  the  writings  of 
Allen,  Ladd,  Sully,  Spencer,  Helmholtz,  and  Marshall,  and 

§9,111.2. 

B.  PSYCHOLOGICAL.  —  (See  §  9,  III.  i.)  Aesthetics  as  psy- 
chology is  most  obviously  concerned  with  the  nature  of  aesthetic 
emotions,  although  it  is  bound  to  take  into  account  all  facts  of 
consciousness  involved  in  the  production  of  such  emotions. 
Calling,  for  convenience,  all  objects  that  can  arouse  aesthetic 
emotion  aesthetic  objects,  the  psychologist  may  inquire  :  — 

(1)  Does  the  perception  of  the  aesthetic  object  differ  from 
that  of  other  objects  ?     And  if  so,  how  ? 

This  problem  resolves  itself  into  two  subordinate  problems :  — 
(«;)  What  sensations  do  the  peculiar  physical  marks  of  the 

aesthetic  object,  as,  e.g.,  color,  symmetry,  etc.,  produce  ? 

(£)  How  is  this  raw  material  of  sensation  worked  up  into 

consciousness  through  perception  ? 

(2)  What  is  the  nature  and  function  of  imagination  in  so  far 
as  it  has  to  do  with  the  aesthetic  object  ? 

(3)  Are  there  aesthetic  pleasures  which  are  separable  from 
the  imagination? 

(4)  Characteristics  of  the  different  kinds  of  aesthetic  imagi- 
nation ? 

(5)  Are  all  aesthetic  objects  (e.g.,  natural  objects)  products 
of  the  aesthetic  imagination  ? 

(6)  Can  the  aesthetic  imagination  do  anything  more  than 
combine  what  has  been  given  it  in  experience  ? 

(7)  \Vhy  does  the  mind  take  an  interest  in  the  aesthetic  ob- 
ject ?     May  the  same  object  be  at  times  aesthetic  and  at  other 
times  non-aesthetic  ? 

(8)  Characteristics  of  aesthetic  emotion  ?     How  related  to 
sensation  ? 


84  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  •          [§  7.  /,-. 

(9)  Is  pleasurableness  the  essential  characteristic  of   aes- 
thetic emotion  ? 

(10)  Kinds  of  aesthetic  emotion  ? 

(n)  Relations  between  aesthetic  emotion  and  other  kinds  of 
emotion  ? 

(12)  Are  aesthetic  pleasures  sense-pleasures? 

(13)  Is  immediacy  of  pleasure-getting  the  distinction  between 
ordinary  emotion  and  aesthetic  emotion  ?     (See  Fechner.) 

(14)  Is  all  aesthetic  emotion  the  revival  oft.  pleasurable  emo- 
tion or  of  a  pleasurable  content  ?     (See  Sully,  Marshall.) 

(15)  What  is  the  nature  of  the  impulse  that  leads  to  the  pro- 
duction of  works  of  art  ?     Is  there  a  difference  between  '  ex- 
pression '  and  '  discharge  of  emotion  '  ?     (See  Bosanquet,  Mind, 

N.S.  3:   153.) 

(16)  Is  the  emotional  state  which  is  produced  by  a  work  of 
art,   passive  and  receptive,  or  active  ?     (See  Allen,  Fechner, 
Guyau,  Ladd,  and  Marshall.) 

(17)  What  is  the  importance  of  sub-conscious  processes  as 
explanation  of  aesthetic  effects  ?     (See  Helmholtz.) 

(18)  Aesthetic  function  of  the  Will? 

C.  SPECULATIVE  PROBLEMS.  —  The  problem  of  aesthetics  as 
philosophy  may  be  said,  in  a  general  way,  to  be  the  relation  of 
the  subject-matter  (whatever  that  may  be  determined  to  be)  to 
human  experience.  As  suggested  by  the  parenthesis,  the 
nature  of  the  subject-matter  is  itself  a  part  of  the  problem. 
Retaining  the  convenient  term  aesthetic  object,  we  may  in- 
quire:— 

i.  What  is  it  about  things  that  makes  them  aesthetic  ob- 
jects ? 

The  number  of  the  answers  which  have  been  made  to  this 
question  is  very  large.  Among  the  qualities  or  characteristics 
posited  of  the  aesthetic  object  are  the  following:  Truth,  Con- 
flict, Reconciliation  of  Opposites,  Repose,  Growth,  Life,  Order, 


C.]  MINUTE   ANALYSIS  OF  PROBLEMS.  85 

Symmetry,  Fitness,  Unity  in  Variety,  Simplicity,  Intricacy, 
Harmony,  Usefulness  (recognized  or  unrecognized),  Expression, 
Suggestion,  Personality,  Novelty,  Consistency,  Proportion,  Free- 
dom, Economy,  Rhythm.  By  most  writers  these  and  all  simi- 
lar characteristics  are  held  to  be  summed  up  in  the  comprehen- 
sive term  Beauty. 

If  it  is  necessary  to  posit  some  particular  thing  as  the  essence 
of  the  aesthetic  object,  it  would  perhaps  be  better  to  substitute 
for  the  ambiguous  term  beauty  the  term  aesthetic  value,  which 
has  at  least  the  advantage  of  suggesting  its  question-begging 
character.  Adopting  this  term  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  we 
may  ask:  — 

2.  Is  aesthetic  value  subjective  or  objective,  or  both? 

3.  Kinds  of  aesthetic  value,  and  relation    of  one  kind  to 
another  ? 

As  examples  of  the  different  kinds,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Beautiful,  the  Sublime,  the  Ludicrous,  the  Pathetic,  the  Tragic, 
the  Grotesque,  etc. 

4.  Relation  of  the  work  of  art  to  nature  ? 

This  question  may  take  on  a  great  diversity  of  forms,  as,  for 
example  :  — 

(a)  Is  art  an  imitation  of  nature,  and  if  so,  is  that  all  that 
art  is  ? 

(£)  In  what  respect  does  the  aesthetic  value  of  art  differ 
from  that  of  nature  ? 

(c)  Is  there  a  higher  and  a  lower  aesthetic  value,  and  if  so, 
which  is  higher,  that  of  nature  or  that  of  art  ? 

(d)  Does  nature,  when  it  takes  on  aesthetic  value,  become 
art?      - 

5.  Character  of  the  work  of  art  ? 

In  dealing  with  the  work  of  art,  we  may  inquire,  (a)  What  is 
its  essential  principle  ?  Or,  taking  into  account  the  conditions 
of  its  production,  may  ask  (fr)  Why  works  of  art  should  be  pro- 
duced at  all  ?  Or,  (c)  What  were  the  aims  and  motives  of  the 


86  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  7,  //. 

producer  of  a  particular  work  ?  Or,  (d)  By  what  processes  and 
in  obedience  to  what  laws  he  gave  embodiment  to  his  idea  ? 
Or,  (e)  In  what  material  he  embodied  it  ?  Or,  (/)  What  are 
the  laws  of  the  development  of  art  in  general  ?  The  answer  to 
the  first  question  will  bring  before  us  the  theory  of  art ;  to  the 
second,  the  genesis  of  art,  or  the  art-impulse ;  to  the  third,  the 
relations  of  art  and  the  artist ;  to  the  fourth,  the  technique  of 
art  and  the  nature  of  genius  ;  to  the  fifth,  the  classification  of 
the  arts;  and  to  the  sixth,  the  evolution  of  art  as  a  historical 
growth.  For  authorities  on  speculative  problems  see  §§  8  and 
9,  II.  1-8. 

D.  SOCIAL  PROBLEMS.  —  These  are  such  as  relate  to  the 
communal  origin  and  development  of  the  aesthetic  impulse, 
and  the  effect  exerted  upon  the  community  by  aesthetic  pro- 
ductions. 

(A)  (i)  What  part  has  sympathy  or  altruism  played  in  the 
origin  and  development  of  aesthetic  pleasure  ?  In  the  produc- 
tion of  works  of  art?  Are  aesthetic  pleasures  ever  selfish 
pleasures  ? 

(2)  What  part  has  been  played  in  aesthetic  production  by 
the  imitative  instinct  —  the   instinct  of  one  man   to   do  what 
another  has  done  or  is  doing  ? 

(3)  To  what  extent  does  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  gov- 
ern the  production  of  art  ? 

(4)  To  what  extent  is  art  individual,  and  to  what  extent  is  it 
social  ?     Is  art  the  possession  of  the  whole  people  ? 

(5)  To  what  extent  are  the  principles  of  cooperation  and 
division  of  labor  effective  in  art  ? 

(6)  Place  of  art  in  the  theory  of  the  State  ? 

(a)  In  what  form  of  government  does  art  best  flourish  ? 
(£)  Does    inequality   of   condition    promote    or   hinder  the 
healthy  development  of  art  ? 

(7)  To  what  extent  is  art  the  expression  of  pleasure  in  the 
labor  of  production  ? 


(j  o.J  REFERENCES.  87 

(8)  To  what  extent  is  freedom  of  the  artist  essential  to  good 
art? 

(9)  What  part  is  played  by  machinery  in  the  production  of 
works  of  art  ?     Are  machine-made  articles  necessarily  bad  art  ? 

(10)  Does  civilization  inevitably  bring  ugliness  with  it  ? 
(i  i)   Does  art  go  hand  in  hand  with  luxury  ? 

(R)    (i)  What  effect  has  art  upon  social  development? 

(2)  What  is  the  relation  of  art  to  morality  ?     May  art  be 
non-moral  ? 

(3)  Is  the  best  art  that  which  appeals  to  the  people  —  thef 
masses?     Or  that  which  appeals  to  an  aristocracy  of  intellect' 
and  emotion  ? 

(4)  What  is  the  service  which  useful  art  renders  to  the  com- 
munity, and  how  does  this  differ  from  the  service  rendered  by 
fine  art  ? 

For  information  upon  the  social  side  of  art  —  as  yet  but  lit- 
tle understood  —  the  student  may  consult  the  works  of  Guyau 
(L'Art  au  point  de  vue  sociologique),  Wm.  Morris,  Wilde, 
De  Greef,  and  Dewey  (Outline  of  Ethics). 

§  8.      REFERENCES. 

ALISON,  ARCHIBALD.     Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of 

Taste.     2  vols.     Edinburgh ;   1825. 

The  student  will  find  in  Alison's  voluminous  essay  an  inter- 
esting defense  of  the  theory  that  association  is  the  source  of 
the  Beautiful.  If  the  association  theory  is  valid,  the  theory  of 
Beauty  as  an  intrinsic  quality  in  the  object  will  be  difficult  to 
maintain.  The  question  will  be  worth  consideration  whether 
the  recollection  of  other  objects  associated  with  the  one  we  con- 
template is  requisite  to  the  awakening  of  the  sense  for  beauty  ? 
Also,  whether  the  Useful  is  an  index  to  the  Beautiful,  or  vice 
•versa  ?  Is  Professor  Blackie,  in  the  Preface  to  his  Discourses 
on  Beauty,  reasonable  on  the  one  hand  in  his  denunciation  of 


88  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  .  [§  8. 

Alison,  Jeffrey,  and  the  whole  school  of  Scottish  philosophers 
as  half-thinkers,  and  on  the  other  in  his  outspoken  admiration 
of  the  stand  taken  by  Sir  W.  Hamilton  ?  For  an  interesting 
essay  on  Alison's  work,  see  Blackw.  13  :  385  Alison  explained 
by  Jeffrey. 

ALLEN,  G. .   Physiological  Aesthetics.     New  York:  1877. 

Allen  is  also  author  of  the  Color  Sense.  Among  articles 
contributed  by  him  to  magazines  the  following  are  noteworthy  : 
Mind,  3:324  Origin  of  the  Sublime ;  4  :  301  Origin  of  the  Sense 
of  Symmetry  ;  5  :  445  Aesthetic  Evolution  in  Man.  As  devel- 
oping more  fully  in  a  single  direction  the  line  of  thought  fol- 
lowed in  psychology  by  Maudsley,  Bain,  Spencer,  and  Sully, 
this  work  on  Physiological  Aesthetics  is  of  considerable  histori- 
cal value.  Grant  Allen  attempts  to  translate  the  aesthetic  feel- 
ings into  terms  of  neural  change  and  the  subjective  concomi- 
tants of  such  change.  Beginning  with  an  extended  analysis  of 
the  two  physiological  facts  of  pleasure  and  pain,  he  shows  that 
the  first  is  caused  by  the  normal  activity  of  the  tissues,  the 
second  by  wasted  or  arrested  activity.  To  distinguish  aesthetic 
from  non-aesthetic  pleasures  he  adopts  Spencer's  distinction 
between  life-serving  processes  and  processes  or  activities  car- 
ried on  purely  for  the  sake  of  the  gratification  they  afford. 
He  thus  arrives  at  the  following  definition :  Aesthetic  pleasure 
is  "  the  subjective  concomitant  of  the  normal  amount  of  activ- 
ity, not  directly  connected  with  the  life-serving  function,  in  the 
peripheral  end-organs  of  the  cerebro-spinal  nervous  system." 
Aesthetic  pleasure,  Allen  holds,  differs  from  play  only  as  a 
passive  pleasure  differs  from  an  active  pleasure.  On  this  point 
he  has  been  vigorously  opposed  by  Guyau  (L'Esthe'tique  Con- 
temporaine),  Marshall,  and  Bosanquet  (Mind,  N.S.  3:  153). 
Mr.  Marshall  notes  that  Mr.  Allen  has  apparently  lost  faith  in 
certain  of  his  own  doctrines.  (See  Mind,  N.S.  i :  364  and 
No.  45.) 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  89 

ARISTOTLE.     De  Arte  Poetica  (Vahlen's  Text),  with  Transla- 
tion by  E.  R.  Wharton.     Oxford:  1883. 

ARISTOTLE.      The    Nicomachean    Ethics.      Trans,   by    F.    H. 
Peters.     London:  1887. 
Pp.  131-3  Wit;  185-9  Art. 

ARISTOTLE.     The  Metaphysics.     Trans,  by  J.  H.  McMahon. 
Bohn  Libr.     London  :  1857. 
Pp.  4-6,  320. 

ARISTOTLE.     The  Politics.     Trans,  by  J.  E.  C.  Welldon.     Lon- 
don: 1883. 

Pp.  227-249  Music ;  245,  246  Purging  of  the  Emotions. 

ARISTOTLE.      The    Rhetoric.      Trans,    by  J.   E.    C.   Welldon. 
London :  1886. 

Bk.  Ill,  chaps.  V,  VIII. 

As  a  starting-point  for  the  history  of  aesthetic  theories  no 
work  is  of  greater  importance  than  the  Poetics.  The  student 
must,  however,  beware  of  adopting  hastily-formed  and  careless 
conclusions  concerning  Aristotle's  meaning.  Of  a  hundred 
critics  upon  Aristotle  not  more  than  one  has  fairly  expounded 
his  theory  of  art  in  the  light  of  his  philosophy  as  developed  in 
the  Rhetoric,  the  Politics,  the  Ethics,  and  the  Metaphysics. 
The  student  should  hold  himself  unbiased  concerning  Aristotle's 
greatest  contribution  to  aesthetics,  the  theory  of  Imitation, 
until  he  has  reconciled  on  one  basis  the  various  statements 
about  art  as  Imitation  scattered  through  the  Poetics.  It 
should  not  be  assumed  without  investigation  that  Aristotle 
by  Imitation  meant  copying  (§9,  Relation  of  Art  to  Nature). 
Light  on  this  point  may  be  had  by  comparing  Plato's  Theory 
of  Imitation  and  his  views  on  the  relation  of  art  to  ethics  with 
the  corresponding  theories  of  Aristotle.  On  such  questions  as 
Aristotle's  leanings  to  symbolism,  his  treatment  of  the  ugly,  his 


90  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

idealism,  his  view  of  the  relation  of  art  to  nature,  and  other 
fundamental  problems,  see  the  careful  and  profound  exposition 
of  Bosanquet  (History  of  Aesthetic,  chaps.  II-IV,  especially 
pp.  55—76).  Assistance  in  determining  the  relation  of  Aris- 
totle's philosophy  of  art  to  the  Aristotelian  system  may  be 
obtained  from  Butcher's  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and 
Fine  Art;  Ueberweg's  Hist,  of  Philosophy,  vol.  I,  pp.  177-180; 
Erdmann's  Hist,  of  Philos.,  vol.  I,  pp.  173-177  ;  E.  Wallace's 
Outlines  of  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle;  Zeller's  Philosophic 
der  Griechen,  Theil  2,  Abth.  2,  pp.  763-787;  Schasler's  Krit. 
Gesch.  Aesth.,  Theil  i,  pp.  120-151.  See,  also,  references, 
under  ARISTOTLE,  §§  9,  II.  H,  20,  38,  41,  47. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  numer- 
ous monographs  on  Aristotelian  aesthetics  • 

Twining,  Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Poetry  (London:  1789); 
Pye,  Commentary  illustrating  the  Poetic  (London  :  1792);  Tyr- 
whitt,  De  Poetica  Liber  (Oxford:  1794);  Raumer,  Ueber  d. 
Poetik  (Berlin:  1829);  Egger,  La  Critique  chez  les  Grecs; 
Be'nard,  L'Esthetique  d'Aristote  (Paris:  1887);  and  Vahlen, 
Teichmiiller,  Boring,  as  described  in  §§  47,  48;  Schrader, 
De  artis  apud  Arist.  notione  ac  vi  (Berlin:  1843;  Miinchen : 
1881)  ;  L.  Spengel,  Ueber  Ka$upo-is  TOM/  Tra^/xartov  bei  Arist. 
(Miinchen:  1859);  Martin,  Analyse  critique  de  la  Poetique 
d'Aristote  (Paris:  1836);  Von  Wartenburg,  Die  Katharsis  des 
Arist.  u.  d.  Oedipus  Coloneus  d.  Sophokles  (Berlin:  1866); 
Stahr,  Aristoteles  u.  d.  Wirkung  d.  Trag.  (Berlin:  1859); 
Reinkens,  Arist.  lib.  d.  Kunst,  besonders  iib.  d.  Trag.  (Wien  : 
1870);  A.  Dehlen,  Die  Theorie  d.  Arist.  u.  d.  Tragodie  d. 
Antiken  Christl.  Naturwissenschaftl.  Weltanschauung  (Got- 
tingen :  1885);  E.  Jerusalem,  Ueber  d.  Arist.  Einheiten  im 
Drama  (Leipzig:  1885);  F.  Susemihl,  Rhein.  Mus.  18:366, 
471,  19  :  197,  22:217  Studien  zur  Aristot.  Poetik;  Th.  Strater, 
Zeitschr.  f.  Philos,  N.F.,  40:  219-247,  41:  204—223  ;  F.  Ueber- 
weg,  Zeitschr.  f.  Philos.  50:  16-39  ^e  Lehre  des  Aristoteles 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  9i 

von  dem  Wesen  und  der  Wirkung  der  Kunst ;  G.  Zillgenz, 
Aristoteles  und  das  deutsche  Drama  (Wiirzburg :  1865) ;  Liepert, 
Aristoteles  und  der  Zweck  der  Kunst  (Passau:  1862);  F.  C. 
Petersen,  Skandin.  Litteraturselskab.  16  Om  den  Aristoteliske 
Poetik;  Ernst  Essen,  Bemerkungen  zu  Aristoteles'  Poetik 
(Leipzig:  1878);  R.  Schultz  De  poetices  Aristoteleae  princi- 
piis  (1874);  M.  Seibel,  Zu  Arist.  -n-epl  TTOIT?™/^?  (1891);  C.  Alt- 
miiller,  D.  Zweck  d.  schonen  Kunst :  Eine  Arist.  Studie  (1873); 
R.  P.  Hardie,  Mind,  July,  1895,  The  Poetics  of  Aristotle. 

The  two  essays  of  J.  Bernays  which  have  played  so  impor- 
tant a  part  in  the  discussion  of  the  Aristotelian  theory  of  trag- 
edy, Grundziige  d.  verlornen  Abhandlung  d.  Arist.  iib.  die 
Wirkung  d.  Trag.  (Breslau :  1857),  and  Erganzung  zu  Aris- 
toteles Poetik  {Rhein.  Mus.  N.F.,  8,  pp.  561-596),  have  been 
reprinted  in  one  volume  .under  the  title  Zwei  Abhandl.  iib.  d. 
Arist. Theorie d.  Dramas  (Berlin:  1880).  See, further,  Bernays's 
Brief  an  L.  Spengel  iib.  d.  trag.  Katharsis  bei  Arist.  (Rhein. 
Mus.  N.F.,  14 :  367,  488),  and  Zur  Arist.  Katharsis-Frage 
(Rhein.  Mus.  N.  F.,  15  :  606),  and  Spengel's  Zur  "  tragischen 
Katharsis"  d.  Arist.  (Rhein.  Mus.  N.  F.,  15  :  458). 

BAIN,  ALEX.     The  Emotions  and  the  Will.     London:  1859. 

Pp.  65,  91,  92,  117,  143,  153  Laughter,  156,  182,  183,  196,  197,  204, 
225  Imitation,  246,  247-285  (chap.  XIV)  The  Aesthetic  Emo- 
tions. 

BAIN,  ALEX.     Mental  Science.     New  York:  1870. 

P.  106  Association  in  Fine  Art,  122,  123  Acquisitions  in  the  Fine 
Arts,  149,  172-4,289-317  Aesthetic  Emotions. 

BAIN,  ALEX.     The  Senses  and  the  Intellect.    2d  ed.    London : 
1864. 

Pp.  452-454.  543-55°'  555.  6o4,  605,  614-624. 

Perhaps  no  psychologist  is  more  painstaking  in  gathering 
facts,  and  stating  them,  than  Professor  Bain  ;  but  his  interpre- 
tation of  the  facts  must  be  accepted  with  caution.  Regarding 


92  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

aesthetic  emotions  as  a  sublimation  of  the  simpler  feelings,  and 
distinguishing  these  aesthetic  emotions  by  the  presence  of  cer- 
tain characteristics  not  essential  to  mere  existence,  Bain  is  to  be 
studied  with  especial  profit  in  connection  with  Spencer  and  the 
physiological  school.  In  a  third  edition  of  The  Emotions  and 
the  Will  (London  :  1875)  changes  have  been  made  in  conformity 
with  Sully's  investigations  into  the  aesthetic  emotions  ;  and  the 
author  discusses  at  some  length  the  bearing  of  the  evolution 
hypothesis  on  his  premises  as  hitherto  stated.  See  Mind  i : 
154. 

BEGG,  W.  P.     The  Development  of  Taste  and  other  Studies  in 
Aesthetics.     Glasgow:  1887. 

A  work  which,  while  it  cannot  be  said  to  advance  a  new  the- 
ory of  the  Beautiful,  or  of  Art,  presents  with  clearness  the 
nature  of  the  theories  of  the  Evolutionists  and  of  the  Associa- 
tionists  (chaps.  I-IX),  and  elaborates  with  enthusiasm  the  doc- 
trines of  Hegel  and  of  the  brothers  Caird.  The  chapters  on 
the  development  of  taste  among  the  Assyrians,  Egyptians, 
Hebrews,  Greeks,  Romans,  and  Christians  —  especially  in  re- 
gard to  the  beautiful  in  nature  —  are  profitable  and  of  extreme 
interest.  The  student  will  find  the  distinctions  drawn  in  chap. 
VIII  between  the  Pretty,  the  Picturesque,  the  Beautiful,  and 
the  Sublime,  suggestive;  he  should  note  carefully  Begg's  an- 
swers to  the  two  great  questions :  What  is  Beauty  ?  and  Is 
there  an  absolute  standard  of  Taste  ?  In  saying  that  divine 
thought  immanent  in  the  universe  is  the  supreme  cause  of 
Beauty  in  nature,  Begg  provokes  at  once  the  question :  Then 
how  comes  the  Ugly  here  ?  His  answer  is  that  of  Leibnitz  and 
the  Optimists.  See  review  in  Rev.  Phtios.  23  :  654. 

BELL,  SIR  CHAS.     The  Anatomy  and  Philosophy  of  Expression 
as  connected  with  the  Fine  Arts.     6th  ed.     London  .-1872. 

Of  considerable  importance  as  a  forerunner  of  the  evolution- 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  93 

ary  and  physiological  school  of  aesthetics  represented  by  Bain, 
Spencer,  Sully,  and  Allen. 

BOSANQUET,  BERNARD.      A  History  of  Aesthetic.      London  : 
1892. 

This  is  the  only  adequate  historico-critical  survey  of  the  sub- 
ject produced  outside  of  Germany.  Aesthetic  theory  is  treated 
as  a  branch  of  philosophy  ;  but  the  result  is  something  more 
than  a  history  of  speculation.  The  author's  appreciation  of  art, 
and  his  sense  for  the  intimate  connection  between  theory  and 
practice,  cause  him  to  regard  aesthetic  theory  "as  only  the 
clear  and  crystallized  form  of  the  aesthetic  consciousness 
or  sense  of  beauty."  His  work  is  thus  at  one  and  the  same 
time  a  history  of  aesthetic  opinion  and  a  history  of  the  aes- 
thetic consciousness;  and  although  he  has  avoided  what  he 
calls  "  the  impertinence  of  invading  the  artist's  domain  with  an 
apparatus  belli  of  critical  principles  and  precepts,"  his  interpre- 
tations of  art,  and  especially  of  literature  (see  in  particular 
chap.  VII  A  comparison  of  Dante  and  Shakespeare  in  respect 
of  some  Formal  Characteristics),  are  not  the  least  valuable 
parts  of  the  work.  The  point  of  view  is  speculative,  but  ample 
justice  is  done  to  the  "  exact  aesthetic  "  of  Germany  and  the 
related  investigations  in  England.  The  treatment  is  by  ideas, 
not  by  authors. 

The  appearance  of  this  work  was  preceded  by  several  stud- 
ies of  aesthetics  from  the  pen  of  the  author.  Among  the  most 
important  were  the  essay  prefatory  to  his  translation  of  Hegel, 
and  the  following  articles  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Aris- 
totelian Society:  Vol.  I,  No.  2,  pp.  77-96  The  Part  played  by 
Aesthetic  in  the  Growth  of  Modern  Philosophy  ;  vol.  I,  No.  3, 
pt.  I,  pp.  32-48  The  Aesthetic  Theory  of  Ugliness.  Since  the 
History  appeared  Mr.  Bosanquet  has  published  in  Mind,  N.S. 
3  :  153,  an  interesting  article  entitled  On  the  Nature  ef  Aes- 
thetic Emotion,  in  which  he  discusses  the  relation  between 
emotion  and  expression. 


94  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

BROWN,  BALDWIN.     The  Fine  Arts.     London  :  1892. 

One  of  the  University  Extension  Manuals,  edited  by  Professor 
Knight.  It  has  the  double  merit  of  being  scholarly  in  treat- 
ment and  fresh  and  spirited  in  style.  As  an  introduction  to  the 
general  theory  of  the  arts  it  has  few  rivals. 

BURKE,  EDMUND.  Philosophical  Inquiry  into  the  Origin  of  our 
Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful.  London:  1821. 
(First  published  1756.) 

Of  much  importance  historically,  and  useful  to  the  student 
as  suggesting  a  comparison  between  the  physiological  theory  of 
aesthetic  which  Burke  advanced  and  the  theory  of  associated 
ideas  maintained  by  Alison  and  the  Scotch  school.  Burke 
was  one  of  the  earliest  writers  to  emphasize  the  relation  of  the 
Sublime  to  the  Beautiful.  The  validity  of  his  premises  calls 
for  careful  examination.  Does  the  sense  for  Beauty  rest  upon 
man's  impulse  toward  society,  and  that  for  the  sublime  on  the 
impulse  of  self-preservation?  Cf.  Schasler's  Geschichte,  Bd.  i, 
§§  159-161  ;  Bosanquet,  Hist.  Aesthetic,  pp.  203-6. 

CARRIERE,  M.  Aesthetik.  Die  Idee  des  Schonen  und  ihre 
Bewirklichg.  durch  Natur,  Geist,  und  Kunst.  2  vols. 
Leipzig:  1873.  (ist  ed.  1859,  3d  ed.  1886.) 

CARRIERE,  M.     Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Kulturent- 
wickelung,  und  die  Ideale  der  Menschheit.     5  vols.     Leip- 
zig: 1871-3.     (ist  ed.  1862,  3d  ed.  1886.) 
Carriere  is  one  of  the  most  readable  of  modern  German  writ- 
ers on  aesthetics.     He  has  done  as  much  as  any  one  man,  per- 
haps, to  spread  a  knowledge  of  the  subject  among  his  country- 
men.    As  regards  his  philosophical  position,  he  is  in  essentials 
a  Hegelian,  though  he  differs  with  Hegel  upon  many  minor 
points.     He  calls  himself  a  real-idealist.     The  work  entitled 
Art  in  Connection  with  the  Development  of  Culture  is  a  nota- 
bly successful  attempt  to  write  the  aesthetic  history  of  human- 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  95 

ity.  Carriere  has  also  written  Das  Wesen  und  die  Formen  der 
Poesie  (Leipzig:  1854).  In  his  Die  Sittliche  Weltordnung 
(Leipzig:  1877),  pp.  339-354  deal  with  art.  A  criticism  of 
Carriere's  aesthetics  appeared  in  Bibl.  Sacr.  18  :  227. 

COLVIN,  S*.     Encycl.  Brit,     gtii  ed.     '  Art.' 

A  somewhat  formal  discussion  of  the  various  meanings  of  the 
word  Art,  with  classification  of  the  arts  into  useful  and  fine 
arts. 

COLVIN,  S.     Encycl.  Brit,     gth  ed.     '  Fine  Arts.' 

The  definition,  classification,  and  historical  development  of 
fine  art  is  here  handled  with  great  clearness  and  considerable 
accumulation  of  interesting  fact.  The  writer  makes  no  pre- 
tense to  historical  insight,  but  refers  in  one  place  and  another 
to  the  theories  of  the  important  authorities. 

COUSIN,  V.     Cours  de  1'histoire   de  la  Philosophic  moderne. 
ie  ser.     5  vols.     Paris:  1846. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  120-205  Du  Beau,  419-428  Du  Beau  reel  et  du  Beau 
Ideal. 

COUSIN,  V.     Du  Vrai,  du  Beau,  et  du  Bien.     Paris:  1853. 
Pp.  141-270  Du  Beau. 

COUSIN,  V.     Lectures  on    the  True,   the   Beautiful,   and   the 
Good.     Trans,  by  O.  W.  Wight.     New  York  :  1860. 

Pp.  123-214. 

With  Leveque  and  Jouffroy,  Cousin  is  a  member  of  the 
school  of  Spiritualistes.  For  him  the  sense  of  Beauty  is  purely 
subjective.  His  aesthetic  is  the  result  of  a  reaction  from  the 
sensationalism  of  the  i8th  century.  His  studies  were  made 
first  in  the  wake  of  Reid  and  the  Scotch  philosophers,  but  after 
his  visit  to  Germany  in  1817  he  became  a  follower  of  the 
German  idealists.  Though  calling  himself  an  eclectic  spirit- 
ualist, he  was  the  most  enthusiastic  advocate  in  France  of 
German  philosophy.  Attempting  to  steer  a  middle  course  be- 


96  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

tween  the  Scotch  philosophy  and  German  Absolutism,  he  finally 
made  port  with  the  psychologists.  His  work  on  aesthetics  was 
produced  at  this  period  in  his  development. 

DEWEY.  J.     Psychology.     New  York:  1887. 

See  chap.  XV  on  Aesthetic  Feeling,  and  compare  with  it 
chap.  VII  on  Imagination  and  chap.  IX  on  Intuition.  These 
will  be  found  an  excellent  introduction  to  the  psychology  of 
aesthetics.  In  his  Outlines  of  Ethics  (Ann  Arbor:  1891)  Pro- 
fessor Dewey  considers  briefly  the  social  aspects  of  art  (pp.  1 1 1- 
113,  120-127),  and  develops  several  highly  original  conclusions. 
Especially  noteworthy  is  his  attitude  with  regard  to  the  relation 
of  fine  and  useful  art  (p.  112).  He  holds  that  the  rigid  separa- 
tion of  the  two  in  aesthetic  theory  has  no  justification.  "  Both 
are  products  of  intelligence  in  the  service  of  interests,  and  the 
only  difference  is  in  the  range  of  intelligence  and  the  interests 
concerned." 

DIDEROT,   D.     CEuvres   Completes,  rev.  .  .  .  par  J.  Assizat. 
20  vols.     Paris:  1875-7. 

T.  VII,  pp.  307-394  De  la  Poesie  dramatique;  T.  X,  pp.  3-42  Sur 
POrigine  et  la  Nature  du  Beau,  461-520  Essai  sur  la  Peinture 
(written  about  1775);  T.  XII,  pp.  75-133  Pensees  detachees  sur 
la  Peinture,  la  Sculpture,  1'Architecture,  et  la  Poesie  ;  T.  X-XII 
Salons  ;  T.  XIII-XVII  Diet.  Encyclopedique  (See  articles  '  Art,' 
'  Beaute,'  etc.). 

One  of  the  most  penetrating  and  original  of  French  writers 
on  art.  His  additions  to  theory,  however,  are  made  by  way  of 
suggestion  in  the  course  of  his  art-criticisms,  and  not  in  sys- 
tematic form. 

EMERSON,  R.  W.     Complete  Works.     Riverside  ed.     n  vols. 
Boston:  1883-4. 

Vol.  I  (Nature),  pp.  21-30  Beauty  ;  vol.  II  (Essays,  ist  ser.),  pp. 
327-343  Art;  vol.  VI  (Conduct  of  Life),  pp.  265-290  Beauty  ; 
vol.  VII  (Soc.  and  Solitude),  pp.  41-59  Art;  vol.  VIII  (Letters 
and  Soc.  Aims),  pp.  9-75  Poetry  and  Imagination,  151-166  The 
Comic. 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  97 

May  well  be  laid  aside  until  some  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  study  of  aesthetics.  The  reading  of  Emerson  at  an  early 
stage  is  likely  to  fill  the  student's  mind  with  catch-words  and 
epigrams  about  art,  the  meaning  of  which  he  is  not  prepared  to 
understand.  Emerson's  theories  of  art  may  best  be  viewed  in 
the  light  of  his  philosophy  as  a  whole.  His  oracular  fragments 
will  then  assume  a  measure  of  completeness  and  system. 

EVERETT,  C.  C.     Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty.     Boston:  1888. 

For  this  work,  as  for  his  Science  of  Thought,  Professor 
Everett  has  drawn  his  inspiration  from  Schopenhauer  and  his 
method  from  Hegel.  The  result  has  been  in  each  case  a  logi- 
cal and  at  the  same  time  a  fresh  and  fascinating  treatise.  Pro- 
fessor Everett  discusses  in  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty,  three 
sides  of  life,  faces  of  a  prism :  The  enjoyment  of  Beauty,  the 
independence  of  the  spiritual  life,  the  obedience  to  the  law  of 
righteousness.  The  rare  interdependence  of  the  three  is  deli- 
cately expressed.  Perhaps  no  writer  in  America  has  with  equal 
charm  set  forth  the  philosophic  connection  between  Ethics  and 
Art,  Art  and  Imagination,  Imagination  and  the  Actual,  the 
Comic  and  the  Tragic,  the  Beautiful  and  the  Right.  The  stu- 
dent should  consider  carefully  the  ground  occupied  by  both 
Everett  and  Schopenhauer  (vol.  II,  pp.  270-284),  that  the 
sense  of  the  ludicrous  is  purely  subjective.  There  is  an  enter- 
taining article  by  Professor  Everett  in  the  Andover  Rev., 
August,  1890,  on  the  Sublime.  Here,  again,  his  views  are  in 
sequence  with  those  of  Schopenhauer  (vol.  I,  pp.  259-268). 

EVERETT,  C.  C.     The  Science  of  Thought.     Boston  :  1882. 

This  work  is  an  excellent  introduction  to  the  study  of 
aesthetics  and  of  criticism.  Special  attention  should  be  paid 
to  pp.  153-163  Propositions  of  Beauty,  and  pp.  221—232  The 
Logic  of  Aesthetics.  . 


98  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

EYE,  A.  VON.     Das  Reich  des  Schonen.     Berlin:   1878. 

Though  outwardly  forbidding  from  its  lack  of  table  of  contents 
and  index,  and  its  paucity  of  internal  divisions,  this  work,  for 
one  who  has  the  courage  to  attack  it,  presents  a  fairly  com- 
prehensive survey  of  the  field  of  Aesthetic  inquiry.  A  brief 
review  of  German  Aesthetics  begins  on  p.  38. 

FECHNER,    G.   T.     Zur   experimentalen    Aesthetik.      Leipzig : 
1871. 

FECHNER,  G.  T.     Vorschule  der  Aesthetik.     Leipzig:  1876. 

Fechner's  importance  lies  in  his  having  been  among  the  first 
to  test  by  actual  experiment  preferences  for  outlines,  surfaces, 
and  colors.  He  laid  the  foundation  of  modern  experimental 
aesthetics.  (See  the  article  by  J.  Sully  in  Mind  2  :  102,  and 
Bosanquet,  Hist.  Aesthetic,  pp.  381-387.) 

GAUCKLER,  PH.     Le  Beau  et  son  Histoire.     Paris:  1873. 

An  excellent  little  manual,  covering  in  a  popular  style  both 
the  theoretical  and  the  historical  aspects  of  aesthetics.  On 
pp.  1-9  the  author  reviews  briefly  the  important  definitions  of 
Beauty.  His  own  is  given  on  p.  14:  "The  true  manifestation 
in  finite  phenomena  of  the  unity  of  being." 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.,  and  F.  N.  SCOTT.     A  Guide  to  the  Literature 
of  Aesthetics.     Berkeley  (California):  1890. 

This  is  No.  1 1  of  the  University  of  California  Library  Bulle- 
tins, and  can  be  obtained  by  librarians  by  way  of  exchange. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON.     Werke.     (Hempel  ed.)     36  vols.  in  23. 
Berlin  :  1879. 

Bd.II.pp.  175-220 Kunst;  Bd.  XXVIII  Schrif ten und  Aufsatzezur 
Kunst ;  Bd.  XXIX  Aufsatze  zur  Literatur.  See  indexes  in  Bde. 
II,  XXVIII  and  XXIX,  and  index  to  Bde.  I-XXXVI  in  Bd. 
XXXVI. 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  99 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON.  Sammtliche  Werke.  '40  vols.  in  20. 
Stuttgart:  1840. 

Bd.  Ill,  pp.  257-274  Verschiedenes  Einzelne  iiber  Kunst ;  Bd. 
XXX  Winckelman,  Ueber  Laokoon,  Wahrheit  und  Wahrschein- 
lichkeit,  u.  s.  w.;  Bd.  XXXI  von  Deutsche  Baukunst,  Verschie- 
denes iiber  Kunst,  u.  s.  w.;  Bd.  XXXII  Deutsche  Literatur;  Bd. 
XXXIII  Auswartige  Literatur  und  Volkspoesie;  Bd.  XXXV, 
pp.  333-459  Theater  und  dramatische  Poesie. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON,  and  ECKERMANN,  J.  P.     Gesprache  mit 
Goethe.     6te  Aufl.     3  vols.     Leipzig:  1885. 
See  Register  in  Bd.  III. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON,  ECKERMANN,  J.  P.,  and  M.  SORET.  Con- 
versations of  Goethe.  Trans,  by  J.  Oxenford.  London  : 
1875.  (Vol.  VI  of  Goethe's  Works.) 

As  in  the  case  of  Plato  so  in  that  of  Goethe,  it  did  not  lie 
within  the  purpose  of  the  man  to  develop  a  complete  system  of 
aesthetics.  But  up  and  down  the  works  of  Goethe  are  scat- 
tered thoughts  of  a  finished  art-amateur  concerning  the  subject 
with  which  he  was  most  intimate.  His  opinions  are  not  so 
much  upon  beauty  or  art  in  general  as  upon  the  peculiar 
beauty  and  the  comparative  art  of  this  or  the  other  artistic 
product.  A  propos  of  architecture,  of  the  plastic  arts,  of 
Shakespeare,  of  the  French  dramatists,  of  the  German  Roman- 
ticists, Goethe  delivers  himself  frequently  and  fully.  In  his 
conversations  there  will  be  found  suggestive  passages  touching 
upon  the  Unities,  the  quarrel  between  Classicism  and  Romanti- 
cism, the  theories  of  Lessing  and  Winckelmann,  the  tenets  of 
various  schools  of  criticism,  the  necessary  principles  of  art,  the 
nature  of  the  Beautiful,  and  the  growth  of  the  author's  aes- 
thetic convictions.  For  his  definite  contribution  to  the  advance 
of  aesthetic  speculation,  see  Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  304- 
316,  and  §  20  below,  under  GOETHE. 


100  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

GURNEY,  EDM.     The  Power  of  Sound.     London:   1880. 

In  the  first  chapters  of  this  work  is  outlined  a  complete  sys- 
tem of  the  Fine  Arts  as  introduction  to  the  treatment  of  the  art 
of  music.  Gurney  is  here,  as  everywhere,  clear,  straightforward, 
and  entertaining. 

GUYAU,  M.-J.     Les  Problemes  de  1'Esthetique  contemporaine. 

Paris:  1884. 

The  problems  here  discussed  are  (i)  the  nature  of  Art,  (2) 
the  future  of  art  and  poetry,  (3)  the  form  of  poetry,  and  the  laws 
of  verse.  The  author  maintains  the  seriousness  of  art  (cf.  Aris- 
totle's and  Wordsworth's  "  high  seriousness  '')  as  against  the 
"play"  theory  of  Spencer  and  Allen.  He  deals  a  hard  blow 
at  the  view  of  aesthetic  emotion  which  makes  it  a  distinctively 
passive  or  receptive  attitude  of  the  mind. 

GUYAU,   M.-J.      L'art  au  point  de  vue  sociologique.      Introd. 

par  A.  Fouillee.     Paris:  1889. 

In  this  posthumous  work  M.  Guyau  presents  with  great  force 
and  brilliancy  of  style  an  interpretation  of  art  in  terms  of  social 
relationship.  His  doctrine  is  summed  up  in  the  statement  that 
the  function  of  art  is  to  make  all  men  feel  alike,  and  so  to  de- 
velop social  sympathy.  M.  Guyau's  views  are  presented  appre- 
ciatively in  Alfred  Fouille'e's  La  Morale,  1'art  et  la  religion 
d'apres  M.  Guyau  (Paris:  1889). 

HARTMANN,  E.  VON.     Ausgewahlte  Werke.     2   vols.     Berlin  : 
1887. 

9-12  Hfte.  Die  deutsche  Aesthetik  seit  Kant  ;  13-20  Hfte.  Philoso- 
phic des  Schonen. 

Of  these  two  volumes  the  first  deals  with  the  history  of  Ger- 
man Aesthetics  since  Kant,  the  second  presents  the  author's 
system.  In  the  first  volume  pp.  1-362  are  taken  up  with  a 
historico-critical  exposition  of  systems  ;  pp.  363-580  with  a  con- 
sideration of  special  subjects  and  problems  in  aesthetics,  such 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  101 

as  the  Ugly,  the  Comic,  the  Classification  of  the  Arts,  etc. 
Indexes  and  tables  of  contents  enhance  the  value  of  the  work 
as  a  reference  book.  For  those  who  read  German  readily  this 
work  is  perhaps  the  best  key  to  modern  German  aesthetics. 
For  Von  Hartmann's  philosophic  position  see  Ueberweg's  Hist, 
of  Philos.,  vol.  II,  p.  336  ;  Erdmann,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  236—248  ; 
Bosanquet's  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  424-440. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.     Werke.     18  vols.     Berlin:  1833-48. 

Bd.  X,  Theile  1-3  Aesthetik.     (The  three  parts  of  the  Aesthetik 
will  be  referred  to  as  vols.  I,  II,  and  III.) 

The  importance  of  this  work  in  the  history  of  Aesthetics  is 
generally  recognized,  and  it  is  to  be  regretted  that  no  complete 
translation  has  as  yet  been  made.  The  Einleitung  and  Ein- 
theilung  (vol.  I,  pp.  3-114)  give  an  excellent  outline  of  the 
whole  work,  and  form  the  best  introduction  to  it,  but  give 
little  idea  of  the  wealth  and  fertility  with  which  the  funda- 
mental conceptions  are  developed.  The  remark  of  Sully  that 
the  German  theories  of  aesthetics  '•  can  be  adequately  esti- 
mated and  criticised  only  in  connection  with  the  whole  system 
of  thought  of  which  they  are  a  part,"  is  particularly  true  of 
Hegel.  A  thorough  examination  of  the  Aesthetik,  preceded 
by  a  review  of  the  Logik  and  exposition  of  the  Hegelian  Idee, 
may  be  found  in  Von  Hartmann,  Aesthetik,  Bd.  I,  pp.  107- 
129.  See,  also,  Schasler,  Bd.  II,  p.  974,  and  in  briefer  com- 
pass, p.  1084;  Lotze's  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik;  Ulrici's 
Ueber  Princip  und  Methode  der  Hegelischen  Philosophic 
(Halle:  1841),  pp.  216-244.  Ueberweg's  and  Erdmann's  His- 
tories of  Philosophy  may  also  be  profitably  consulted.  Exposi- 
tory articles  are:  Brit.  6°  for.  Rev.  13  :  i,  No.  Am.  84:  385, 
Church  Rev.  46  :  372,  Macm.  16  :  441  (Stirling's  prefatory  note). 
Hastie's  translation  contains  a  eulogistic  preface  and  a  trans- 
lation of  Zeller's  summary  of  the  Hegelian  philosophy.  Best 
of  all  are,  for  the  beginner,  the  account  in  Wm.  Knight's  Phi- 


102  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

losophy  of  the  Beautiful,  pt.  I,  pp.  70-74,  and  for  the  more  ad- 
vanced student  the  elaborate  interpretation  in  Bosanquet's 
Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  334-362. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.     The  Introduction  to  Hegel's  Philosophy  of 

Fine  Art.     Trans,  by  B.  Bosanquet,     London:  1886. 
This  fine  translation  of  the  Einleitung  and  Eintheilung  should 
be  in  the  hands  of  every  student.     The  prefatory  essay  "On 
the  True  Conception  of  Another  World,"  may  be  recommended 
as  an  admirable  introduction  to  the  reading  of  Hegel. 

HEGEL,  G:  W.  F.,  and  MICHELET,  C.  L.  The  Philosophy  of 
Art :  An  Introduction  to  the  Scientific  Study  of  Aesthetics. 
Trans,  from  the  German  by  W.  Hastie.  Edinburgh : 
1886. 

This  handy  little  book  contains  (i)  an  appreciative  preface 
with  some  remarks  on  Ruskin  and  Taine  ;  (2)  a  translation  of 
Zeller's  summary  of  Hegel's  Philosophy  of  Art ;  (3)  a  translation 
of  pp.  3-30  of  Hegel's  Einleitung,  covering  in  this  volume 
pp.  3-34;  (4)  a  translation  (not  an  analysis,  as  Bosanquet 
wrongly  assumes)  of  pp.  105-114  of  Hegel's  Eintheilung,  ex- 
tending in  this  volume  to  p.  46  ;  (5)  a  translation  of  pp.  406- 
453  of  Michelet's  System  der  Philosophic.  While  the  transla- 
tion is  readable  and  fairly  representative  of  Hegel's  thought,  it 
falls  far  below  Bosanquet's  in  point  of  critical  value.  The  lat- 
ter has  the  great  advantage,  also,  of  giving  the  Einleitung  and 
Eintheilung  entire. 

The  following  are  translations  of  parts  of  the  Aesthetik: 
/.  Spec.  Philos.  i  :  36,  91,  169,  221  ;  2  :  39,  157  ;  3  :  31,  147, 
281,  317  Bdnard's  Exposition  of  Hegel,  translated  by  J.  A. 
Martling  (see  comment  in  'Mind,  12:  599):  5  :  368;  6:  125, 
252;  7  :  33  Hegel's  Philos.  of  Art  —  Chivalry,  translated  by  S.  A. 
Longwell ;  i«  :  337;  12:  18  Hegel's  Symbolic  Art,  translated 
by  W.  M.  Bryant;  12:145,  277  Hegel's  Classical  Art,  trans- 


§8.]  .  REFERENCES.  103 

lated  by  W.  M.  Bryant;  12:  403;  13:  113,  244,  351  Hegel's 
Romantic  Art,  translated  by  W.  M.  Bryant;  Macm.  16:441 
Hegel's  Symbolism  of  the  Sublime,  translated  by  J.  H.  Stirling. 

HELMHOLTZ,  H.  L.  F.  VON.  Sensations  of  Tone  as  a  Physio- 
logical Basis  for  a  Theory  of  Music.  Translated  and  edited 
by  A.  J.  Ellis.  London:  1875. 

Upon  the  physical  and  physiological  problems  of  music  Helm- 
holtz  is  the  highest  authority.  In  the  speculative  field,  into 
which  he  ventured  long  excursions  (chaps.  XIII  and  XIX), his 
opinions  do  not  have  and  do  not  deserve  so  much  considera- 
tion. In  most  points  of  his  aesthetic  philosophy  Helmholtz  is 
a  close  follower  of  Kant.  "Art,"  he  says,  "creates  regularly 
without  conscious  law,  designedly  without  conscious  aim"  — 
Kant's  "  Zweckmassigkeit  ohne  Zweck." 

HERDER,  J.  G.  Sammtliche  Werke.  Hrsg.  von  B.  Suphan. 
27  vols.  Berlin:  1877-81. 

Bd.  I,  pp.  43-56  Schonheit,  Bd.  IV,  pp.  1-218  Kritische  Walder 
oder  Betrachtungen  iiber  die  Wissenschaft  und  Kunst  des 
Schonen;  Bd.  XII,  pp.  1-308  Vom  Geist  der  Ebraischen  Poesie  ; 
Bd.  XXII  (Kalligone),  pp. 3-122  Vom  Angenehmen  und  Schonen, 
pp.  125-224  Von  Kunst  und  Kunstrichterei,  pp.  227-360  Vom 
Erhabenen  und  vom  Ideal. 

Although  of  great  importance  as  an  independent  thinker  in 
the  field  of  literature,  Herder  is  known  in  aesthetics  chiefly  by 
his  criticisms  of  the  view  of  Kant.  These  will  be  found  in  the 
Kalligone. 

HOGARTH,  WM.     The  Analysis  of  Beauty.     London:  1753. 

Of  especial  interest  because  of  its  influence  upon  the  course 
of  modern  speculation  regarding  the  standard  of  taste.  Among 
those  who  are  indebted  to  it  are  Burke,  Lessing,  Reynolds,  and 
Goethe.  Bosanquet  in  his  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  p.  208,  assigns  to 
the  work  a  high  degree  of  importance,  in  that  it  "  represents 
the  abstract  principle  of  unity  in  variety  on  its  highest  level,  so 


104  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  a 

as  to  form  a  point  of  transition  to  the  analysis  of  the  present 
century."   (See  Schasler,  Gesch.  d.  Aesth.,  Thl.  i,  pp.  307-313.) 

HUME,  D.     Philosophical  Works.     4  vols.     Boston:  1854. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  30-36  Of  Beauty  and  Deformity;  vol.  Ill,  pp.  211- 
216  Of  Simplicity  and  Refinement  in  Writing,  pp.  237-247  Of 
Tragedy,  pp.  248-273  Of  the  Standard  of  Taste,  pp.  217-522 
Of  Essay  Writing. 

Hume's  utterances  on  questions  of  aesthetics  are  brief  and 
fragmentary.  They  derive  their  interest  partly  from  their  in- 
trinsic value  and  partly  from  the  fact  that  they  are  by  Hume. 
In  writing  upon  Beauty  and  Deformity  (in  the  Treatise  on 
Human  Nature)  Hume  rests  his  exposition  mainly  upon  the 
principle  of  utility,  though  the  utility  of  which  he  conceives 
is  like  the  Kantian  "purposiveness  without  purpose"  and 
"  pleasure  without  interest,"  in  that  it  is  devoid  of  selfishness 
on  the  part  of  the  spectator.  (See  Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesth., 
pp.  178-180.) 

JOUFFROY,    TH.     Cours    d'Esthe'tique    .    .   .    Preface   par    Ph. 

Damiron.     Paris  :  1845. 

A  precise  handling  of  the  subject  by  a  somewhat  hard-headed 
disciple  of  Cousin.  The  point  of  view  is  psychological. 

KANT,  IMM.  Sammtliche  Werke.  Hrsg.  von  C.  Hartenstein. 
8  vols.  Leipzig:  1867-8. 

Bd.  II,  pp.  227-280  Beobachtungen  Uber  das  (Jefiihl  des  Schonen 
und  Erhabenen  ;  Bd.  V,  pp.  205-368  Kritik  der  Aesthetischen 
Urtheilskraft  ;  Bd.  VI,  p.  386  Von  der  Aesthetik  des  Beurtheils- 
vermbgens. 

KANT,  IMM.  Critique  du  Jugement,  suivie  des  Observations 
sur  le  Sentiment  du  Beau  et  du  Sublime.  Trad,  par 
J.  Barni.  2  vols.  Paris  :  1846. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  i-xvi  Avant-propos  du  traducteur  ;  pp.  1-60  Intro- 
duction de  1'auteur;  pp.  63-340  Critique  du  Jugement  Esthe'tique 
(1790);  vol.  II,  pp.  233-320  Observations  sur  le  sentiment  du 
Beau  et  du  Sublime  (1764). 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  105 

KANT,  IMM.  Kritik  of  Judgment-.  Trans,  by  J.  H.  Bernard. 
London :  1892. 

In  the  history  of  modern  aesthetics  the  writings  of  Kant  are 
of  the  very  highest  degree  of  importance.  In  aesthetics,  as  in 
other  branches  of  philosophy,  he  is  a  kind  of  pivot  upon  which 
all  later  speculation  turns.  His  chief  merit  is  that  he  attacks 
with  immense  critical  power  the  vital  problem  of  his  time.  If 
he  does  not  succeed  in  solving  the  problem,  yet  he  states  it 
with  wonderful  clearness,  and  divines  the  factors  needful  for 
its  solution. 

The  French  translations  of  Imhoff  (1796)  and  of  Keratry  and 
Weyland  (1823)  attest  the  esteem  in  which  this  critique  was  held 
by  Kant's  contemporaries.  Barni's  translation  of  the  Observa- 
tions is  valuable  ;  the  rest  of  his  work  is  superseded  by  Bernard's. 
For  a  clear  and  brief  statement  of  Kant's  aesthetical  doctrine 
of  Zweckmdssigkeit  ohne  Zweck,  and  of  the  position  which  the 
Grit.  Judgm.  (analyzing  phenomena  of  Feeling)  occupies  in 
relation  to  the  Crit.  Pure  Reason,  and  the  Grit.  Pract.  Reason 
(analyzing  respectively  the  phenomena  of  Knowledge  and  of 
Desire),  see  Bernard's  introduction  to  his  translation. 

The  obscurity  of  his  style,  and  the  difficulty  of  compre- 
hending his  philosophical  doctrines  in  their  entirety,  have 
made  Kant's  writings  on  aesthetics,  except  for  specialists  in  phi- 
losophy, practically  a  sealed  book.  The  first  obstacle  has  now 
in  some  measure  been  removed  by  the  publication  of  Bernard's 
translation  of  the  Gritique-of  Judgment,  and  the  second  has 
been  considerably  diminished  by  the  appearance  of  Gaird's 
Gritical  Philosophy  of  Kant  (2  vols. ;  Glasgow:  1889)  and 
Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic. 

KAMES,    LORD.      Elements  of  Criticism.      New   York:  1838. 

(Published  1761.) 

Of  interest  to  the  student  of  the  history  of  aesthetics  because 
of  its  influence  upon  Lessing.  Kames's  attempt  at  the  discov- 


106  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

ery  of  the  characteristics  of  the  object  which  arouse  aesthetic 
feelings,  and  at  the  analysis  of  these  feelings,  is,  notwithstand- 
ing Fr.  Vischer's  condemnation  of  his  work  (Aesthetik,  p.  106), 
a  contribution  to  the  science.  His  independence  of  judgment 
and  method,  and  his  reference  of  the  source  of  criticism  to  the 
human  soul  are  specially  emphasized  in  W.  Neumann's  admirable 
dissertation  Die  Bedeutung  Home's  fiir  die  Aesthetik  u.  s. 
Einfluss  auf  die  deutschen  Aesthetiker  (Halle  :  1894).  Note 
the  indebtedness  of  Kames  to  Gerard's  Essay  on  Taste  (Edin- 
'  755~6)- 


KEDNEY,  J.  S.     The  Beautiful  and  the  Sublime.     New  York  : 
1880. 

This  is  an  interesting  discussion  of  some  of  the  leading  prob- 
lems of  aesthetics.  The  author's  aim  is  to  analyze  the  emotions 
of  the  sublime  and  the  beautiful,  and  to  establish  constructively 
the  objective  character  of  beauty.  A  critical  supplement  re- 
views the  most  important  theories  of  the  sublime  and  the  beau- 
tiful. 

KEDNEY,  J.  S.     Hegel's  Aesthetics.      A  Critical  Exposition. 
Chicago:  1885. 

This  little  work  has  value  as  being  the  only  detailed  exposi- 
tion in  English  of  the  whole  of  Hegel's  Aesthetik.  Unhappily 
the  author  has  followed  the  plan  of  substituting  his  own  theo- 
ries for  those  of  Hegel  at  every  point  where  he  differs  with  the 
latter,  and  the  reader,  although  warned  of  the  interpolated 
matter  by  the  insertion  of  brackets,  cannot  be  sure  whether  the 
impressions  that  he  carries  away  from  the  work  are  those  of  the 
expositor  or  the  expounded.  Pages  1  14-181  are  to  be  regarded 
as  an  independent  treatise  by  the  author,  in  which  no  effort  is 
made  to  distinguish  between  his  own  views  and  those  of  Hegel. 
Professor  Kedney  has  called  attention  to  this  fact  in  the  pref- 
ace, but  since  few  students  are  in  the  habit  of  consulting  prefaces, 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  107 

the  information  should  have  been  repeated  at  the  beginning  of 
Part  II.  The  remaining  portion  of  the  work  is  a  fairly  success- 
ful exposition,  although  serious  errors  of  interpretation  are  not 
wanting.  The  author's  criticism  on  p.  16  is  clearly  based  upon 
a  misreading  of  Hegel.  (See  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  pp.  58,  59.) 
The  same  is  true  of  the  bracketed  paragraph,  pp.  187,  188. 

KER,  W.  P.     The  Philosophy  of  Art.     (In  S.eth  and  Haldane's 

Essays  in  Philosophical  Criticism.     London:  1883.) 
A  finished  and  thoughtful  paper.     The  trend  of  thought  is 
Hegelian. 

KNIGHT,  WM.  The  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful  (Part  I):  being 
Outlines  of  the  History  of  Aesthetics.  New  York:  1891. 

KNIGHT,  WM.  The  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful  (Part  II):  be- 
ing a  Contribution  to  its  Theory,  and  to  a  Discussion  of 
the  Arts.  London  :  1893. 

By  the  use  of  these  university-extension  manuals  the  student 
can  lay  an  excellent  foundation  for  more  advanced  study.  In 
the  first  book  the  writer's  aim  is  not  to  trace  the  evolution  of 
aesthetics  but  merely  to  give  an  impartial  account  of  the  impor- 
tant theories  in  chronological  order.  As  a  guide  to  the  litera- 
ture of  the  subject  it  is  without  a  superior.  The  second  book 
undertakes  to  outline  the  fundamental  principles  of  art  and  of 
the  several  arts  of  poetry,  music,  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, and  dancing.  The  author's  point  of  view  is  frankly  ideal- 
istic, the  "  meagre  doctrine  "  of  the  experimentalists  receiving 
in  this  volume  very  little  notice.  Of  especial  value  are  the 
accounts  of  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Russian  aesthetics. 

KOSTLIN,  K.     Aesthetik.     Tubingen :  1869. 

Neither  the  idea  of  Art  (as  in  Schleiermacher  and  Hegel) 
nor  the  idea  of  the  Beautiful  (as  in  more  recent  writers)  covers 
the  field  of  aesthetics,  The  former  must  be  supplemented  by 


108  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

the  idea  of  Nature,  the  latter  by  that  of  the  Aesthetic  Subject 
in  its  relation  to  life.  In  his  correlation  of  aesthetic  form 
with  the  concrete  world  of  forms  lies  Kostlin's  contribution  to 
the  science. 

KOSTLIN,  K.  Prolegomena  zur  Aesthetik.  Tubingen:  1889. 
For  Kostlin's  Aesthetics,  see  Zeitschrift  fur  Philos.  87  :  215  ; 
Von  Hartmann's  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  p.  305-317.  The  Pro- 
legomena, a  school-program  of  103  pages,  forms  an  excellent 
brief  introduction  to  the  study  of  Aesthetic.  The  principal 
subjects  discussed  are :  Man's  Interest  in  the  World,  the 
Meaning  and  Power  of  the  Agreeable  and  the  Disagreeable, 
the  Beautiful,  Taste,  the  Objectivity  and  the  Relativity  of 
Beauty.  The  starting-point  is  psychological.  See,  also,  Kost- 
lin's Ueber  d.  Schonheitsbegriff  (60  pp.  Tubingen  :  1878). 

LESSING,  G.  E.     Werke.     20  vols.  in  12.     Berlin: 

Bd.  VI  Laokoon;  Bd.  VII  Hamburgische  Dramaturgic;  Bd.  XI, 
Abth.  i,  2  Kleinere  Schriften  zur  dramatischen  Poesie  und  zur 
Fabel  ;  Bd.  XIII,  Abth.  2,  pp.  249-306  Wie  die  Alten  den  Tod 
gebildet,  pp.  332-347  Anmerkungen  zu  Winckelmann's  Ge- 
schichte  der  Kunst. 

The  Laocoon  is  indispensable  whether  as  a  historic  landmark 
or  as  the  ablest  of  all  discussions  of  the  boundaries  of  poetry 
and  painting.  It  has  the  advantage  also  over  many  other  Ger- 
man treatises  of  being  perfectly  intelligible  to  the  beginner. 
The  student  should  not  hesitate  to  question  the  soundness  of 
Lessing's  conclusions,  and  should  inquire  especially  as  to  the 
adequacy  of  the  principle  upon  which  he  bases  his  canon  of 
limitations.  See  Univ.  of  Mich.  Philos.  Papers,  series  II, 
No.  3  Lessing  on  the  Boundaries  of  Poetry  and  Painting,  by 
Professor  E.  L.  Walter ;  H.  Bliimner's  Laokoon-Studien  (Frei- 
burg i.  B. :  1881-2);  and  the  long  and  careful  interpretation  of 
Lessing  in  Bosanquet's  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  216-238.  The 
Laocoon  has  been  translated  by  E.  C\  Beasley  (Bohn  Libr.j 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  109 

and  by  Ellen  Frothingham  (Boston  :  1890),  and  edited  with 
notes  by  A.  Hamann  (Oxford:  1892).  See,  also,  §  20,  under 
LESSING. 

LEVEQUE,  CH.     La  Science  du  Beau.     2e  dd.     2  vols.     Paris  : 

1872. 

This  is  the  most  systematic  and  comprehensive  of  the  French 
treatises  on  aesthetics.  Like  Cousin  the  author  belongs  to  the 
school  of  the  spiritualistes.  Consequently  his  treatment  in 
many  particulars  resembles  that  of  Hegel. 

LONGINUS,  D.  Quae  Supersunt  Graece  et  Latine.  Recens. 
.  .  .  J.  Toupius.  Ace.  emend.  D.  Ruhnkenii.  Editio 
altera.  Oxford:  1778. 

LONGINUS,  D.     On  the   Sublime.      Trans,   by  H.  L.   Havell. 

With  an  Introduction  by  Andrew  Lang.     London:   1890. 
The  earliest  work  in  which  the  Sublime  is  treated  as  a  dis- 
tinct aesthetic  quality,  within  or  beside  the  Beautiful.     For  a 
discussion  of  the  date  and  authorship  of  the  treatise,  see  Egger's 
Essai,  pp.  426-9. 

LOTZE,  H.     Geschichte  der  Aesthetik  in  Deutschland.     Miin- 

chen  :   1868. 

Treats  of  the  German  writers  from  Baumgarten  down.  The 
method  adopted  leads  to  three  different  surveys  of  the  same 
subject-matter  :  First,  with  regard  to  the  point  of  view  from 
which  the  Beautiful  has  been  discovered ;  second,  with  regard 
to  the  fundamental  problems  of  aesthetics  ;  third,  with  regard 
to  the  chronological  sequence  of  theories. 

LOTZE,  H.  Microcosmus.  Trans,  by  E.  Hamilton  and  E.  E.  C. 
Jones.  2  vols.  Edinburgh :  1885. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  324,  578-586  ;  vol.  II,  pp.  168,  169  History  and  Poetry, 
pp.  398-443  Beauty  and  Art. 

Mainly  on  types  of  beauty  as  conceived  in  different  periods 
of  civilization. 


110  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

LOTZE,    H.       Outlines    of    Aesthetics.      Trans,   by    T.    Ladd. 

Boston:  1886. 

A  handy  little  volume,  and  easily  obtainable,  but  one  from 
which  the  student  will  not  carry  away  much  that  is  of  value  un- 
less he  has  previously  acquired  some  acquaintance  with  Lotze's 
philosophical  point  of  view.  See  Erdmann's  or  Ueberweg's 
Hist,  of  Philosophy. 

MARSHALL,  H.  R.  Pain,  Pleasure,  and  Aesthetics.  An  essay 
concerning  the  Psychology  of  Pain  and  Pleasure,  with 
special  reference  to  aesthetics.  New  York  :  1894. 

This  is,  in  the  main,  a  reprint  of  essays  published  in  Mind. 
The  portion  dealing  directly  with  aesthetics  appeared  in  vol.  I, 
N.S.,  pp.  358-378,  453-469  ;  vol.  II,  N.S.,  pp.  15-41. 

In  order  to  secure  a  proper  basis  for  his  theory,  Mr.  Mar- 
shall first  discusses  the  broad  subject  of  the  feelings  of  pleas- 
ure and  pain.  In  this  part  of  his  treatise  he  makes  many 
acute  criticisms  of  Allen,  Spencer,  and  other  recognized  au- 
thorities. Aesthetics  is  then  classified  as  a  division  of  hedon- 
ics,  and  the  following  definition  of  the  aesthetic  field  is  pro- 
posed :  "  Each  one's  field  of  aesthetic  judgment  is  his  relatively 
permanent  pleasure-field  of  revival."  The  remainder  of  the 
work  is  largely  taken  up  with  an  exposition  of  aesthetic  laws, 
which  are  divided  into  negative  and  positive.  The  handling  of 
the  subject  is  unusually  able  and  suggestive. 

A  still  clearer  exposition  will  be  found  in  the  author's 
Aesthetic  Principles  (New  York  :  1895). 

MENENDEZ  Y  PELAYO,  M.  Historia  de  las  ideas  esteticas  en 
Espana.  5  vols.  in  8.  Madrid:  1883-91. 

The  standard  work  on  the  history  of  Spanish  aesthetics.  It 
includes  also  valuable  chapters  on  writers  of  other  nationalities, 
ancient  and  modern;  thus:  Vol.  I,  pp.  1-156  Greek  and  Ro- 
man writers;  vol.  Ill,  pt.  I,  pp.  1-153  French  and  German 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  Ill 

writers  of  the  i8th  century  ;  vol.  IV,  pt.  I  German  aesthetics 
of  the  igth  century;  pt.  II  English  and  French  aesthetics. 
The  work  is  as  yet  unfinished. 

MORRIS,  G.  S.    J.  Spec.  Philos.  10  :  i  Philosophy  of  Art. 

A  lecture  read  before  a  class  who  were  studying  Taine's  Phi- 
losophy of  Art.  Besides  being  a  careful  criticism  of  Taine's 
philosophical  position,  it  is  one  of  the  best  brief  expositions  of 
the  philosophy  of  art  anywhere  to  be  found. 

MORRIS,  WM.     Hopes  and  Fears  for  Art.     Boston  :  1882. 

Pp.  1-37  The  Lesser  Arts,  pp.  38-70  The  Art  of  the  People,  pp.  71- 
113  The  Beauty  of  Life,  pp.  114-168  Making  the  Best  of  it, 
pp.  169-217  The  Prospects  of  Architecture  in  Civilization. 

MORRIS,  WM.     Lectures  on  Art.     3d  ed.     London:  1883. 

MORRIS,  WM.     New  Revieu<  4:  i   The  Socialist  Ideal  —  Art. 

(See,  also,  Mr.  W.  H.  Mallock's  reply  to  Morris  in  New 

Review  4:  100  The  Individualist  Ideal.) 
Morris  is  mainly  interested  in  the  social  aspects  of  art,  a 
subject  which  he  treats  not  only  with  the  grace  and  finish  of 
the  literary  artist,  but  also  with  the  insight  of  the  philosopher. 

PATER,  WALTER.     Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance. 

London  :  1873. 

See  especially  the  Preface,  the  Conclusion,  and  the  essay  on 
Winckelmann. 

PLATO.     The  Dialogues  of  Plato.     Trans,  by  B.  Jowett.    3d  ed. 
5  vols.     London  and  New  York  :  1892. 

Vol.  I,   Ion,  Phaedo,  Symposium,    Phaedrus  ;  vol.   II,   Republic 

(bk.  II,  376-383  ;  bk.  Ill,  386-404  ;  bk.  VII  ;  bk.  IX,  580-591; 

"  bk.  X,  595-608);  vol.    Ill,  Gorgias,   Philebus  ;  vol.   IV,  Laws 

(bk.  II  ;  bk.  IV,  719;  bk.  VII,  796-803,  811-17;  bk.-VIII,  829). 

The  figures  refer  to  the  marginal  numbers. 

With  these  dialogues  the  student  of  the  history  of  aesthetics 
may  properly  begin  his  reading,  and  to  them  he  will  in  the 


112  LITERARY  CRITIC  ISbf.  [§  8. 

course  of  his  studies  return  again  and  again  with  renewed  de- 
light. "  Consciously,  or  unconsciously,"  says  Professor  Knight, 
"all  idealism  draws  its  inspiration  from  Plato."  It  will  be  no 
small  part  of  the  student's  task  to  trace  the  influence  of  the 
Platonic  doctrine  of  art  —  its  relation  to  Nature  and  the  Idea, 
and  its  function  in  Education  —  upon  the  aesthetics  of  the 
ancients.  Its  influence,  also,  upon  Goethe,  Schopenhauer, 
Ruskin,  and  other  modern  writers,  will  demand  historico-critical 
investigation.  See  the  treatment  of  Plato  in  Bosanquet  and 
Schasler,  and  the  analysis  of  his  Theory  of  Imitation  in  §  9  below. 
The  following  are  some  of  the  most  important  monographs 
on  the  Platonic  aesthetics :  Ed.  Miiller,  Ueber  das  Nachah- 
mende  in  d.  Kunst  nach  Plato  (Ratibor :  1831);  A.  Ruge,  Die 
Platonische  Aesthetik  (Halle:  1832);  Ch.  Leveque,  Platon, 
fondateur  de  1'esthe'tique  (Paris:  1857);  K.  Justi,  Die  aesth. 
Elemente  in  d.  Platon.  Philos.  (Marburg:  1860);  Jos.  Reber, 
Plato  und  die  Poesie  (Munchen  :  1864);  M.  Remy,  Plat.  doct. 
de  Artibus  liberalibus  (Halle:  1864):  A.  H.  Raabe,  De  Poetica 
Plat.  (Rotterdam:  1866);  C.  von  Jan,  Die  Tonarten  bei  Plato 
(in  Neuejahrb.f.  Philol.  u.  Paed.,  95  :  815). 

PLOTINUS.  Opera.  Recognovit  A.  Kirchoff.  2  vols.  Leipzig: 
1856. 

PLOTINUS.  Opera  Omnia,  cura  Creuzer.  3  vols.  London  : 
1862.  (Creuzer,  Moser,  Dubner,  Paris:  1855,  cum  Marsilii 
Ficini  interpretatione.) 

PLOTINUS.  Liber  de  Pulchritudine  (ed.  Creuzer).  Heidelberg  : 
1814.  (Ennead  i.  6.) 

The  greatest  of  the  neo-Platonic  philosophers.  His  obser- 
vations on  beauty  are  scattered  through  the  Enneads  ;  but 
Ennead  i.  6  (on  the  Beautiful)  and  5.  8  (on  Spiritual  Beauty) 
are  wholly  occupied  with  the  subject.  On  his  aesthetic  see 
R.  Volkmann's  Die  Hohe  d.  antiken  Aesthetik  oder  Plotin's 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  113 

Abhandlung  vom  Schonen  (1860);  Bosanquet's  Hist,  of  Aesth., 
pp.  ni-ii8  ;  E.  Brenning's  Die  Lehre  vom  Schonen  bei  Plotin 
im  Zusammenhang  seines  Systems  dargestellt  (Gottingen : 
1864)  ;  Ed.  Miiller's  Geschichte  d.  Theor.  d.  Kunst,  vol.  II ; 
A.  J.  Vitringa,  De  egregio,  quod  in  rebus  corporeis  constituit 
Plotinus,  pulcri  principio  (1864);  and  works  cited  in  A.  Richter's 
Neu-Platonische  Studien  (Halle:  1864-7),  Hft-  *»  PP-  13-15; 
Hft.  2,  pp.  iv-vi.  For  Richter's  exposition  of  the  aesthetics 
of  Plotinus,  see  Die  Ethik  des  Plotins  (1867). 

A  French  translation  of  the  Enneads  by  Bouillet  appeared  in 
Paris  in  1857-61.  There  is  a  German  translation  by  H.  F. 
Miiller  (Berlin  :  1878—80).  Thomas  Taylor  translated  Plotinus 
on  the  Beautiful  into  English,  London:  1787;  Five  Books  of 
Plotinus,  London:  1794;  and  Select  Works  of  Plotinus,  Lon- 
don: 1817.  For  other  translations  see  Richter's  Neu-Platonische 
Studien,  as  above.  A  translation  of  Ennead  i.  6,  by  Thomas 
Davidson,  may  be  found  i»  the  Platonist, 

REYNOLDS,  SIR  JOSHUA.     Literary  Works.     2  vols.     London  ; 
1852  (Bohn  Libr.). 

Discourses  on  Art,  and  Three  Letters  to  the  Idler. 
Reynolds  reduces  our  pleasure  in  beauty  to  mere  force  of 
custom.  "  If  we  were  more  used  to  deformity  than  Beauty, 
deformity  would  then  lose  the  idea  now  annexed  to  it,  and  take 
that  of  Beauty."  He  also  advances  the  idea  of  a  beauty  of 
typical  form  —  "  beauty  is  the  medium  or  center  of  all  various 
forms "  —  which  appeared  later  under  different  aspects  in 
Goethe,  Taine,  and  Ruskin. 

RICHTER,  JEAN  PAUL.    Vorschule  der  Aesthetik.    3  vols.    Stutt- 
gart-: 1813. 

Like  Schiller  and  W.  von  Humboldt,  Jean  Paul  is  important 
as  a  popular  aesthetician.  Although  failing  in  logical  precision 
and  method  he  has  contributed  in  an  intuitive  fashion  to 
aesthetic  theory.  For  his  distinction  between  imagination  and 


114  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

fancy,  and  between  the  sublime  and  the  comic,  see  Schasler, 
pp.  67 1,  695. 

RUSKIN,  J.     "  A  Joy  Forever  "  (And  its  Price  in  the  Market)  : 
being  the  Substance  (with  Additions)  of  two  Lectures  on 
the  Political  Economy  of  Art.     Orpington:  1880. 
RUSKIN,  J.     Arrows  of  the  Chace.     2  vols.     Orpington  :  1880. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  3-252  Letters  on  Art,  3-50  Art  Criticism  and  Art  Ed- 
ucation, 1:3-82  Public  Institutions  and  the  National  Gallery,  85- 
114  Pre-Raphaelitism,   117-158  Turner,  161-178  Pictures  and 
Artists,  181-252  Architecture  and  Restoration  ;  vol.  II,  pp.  235- 
264  Literary  Criticism. 

RUSKIN,  J.  Lectures  on  Architecture  and  Painting.  New 
York:  1856. 

RUSKIN,  J.     Modern  Painters.     5  vols.     Orpington :  1887. 

RUSKIN,  J.  On  the  Old  Road.  2  vols.  in  3.  Orpington:  1885. 
Vol.  I,  pt.  I,  pp.  21-132  Lindsay's  Christian  Art,  133-205  East- 
lake's  History  of  Oil  Painting,  329-348  Pre-Raphaelitism,  349- 
400  Architecture  ;  pt.  II,  405-438  Address  at  Cambridge  School 
of  Art,  549-624  Picture  Galleries,  643-698  Minor  Writings 
upon  Art;  vol.  II,  pp.  3-166  Fiction  Fair  and  Foul,  167-176  Fairy 
Stories. 

RUSKIN,  J.     Seven  Lamps  of  Architecture.     New  York:  1859. 
RUSKIN,].     Stones  of  Venice.     3  vols.     New  York:  1860. 
RUSKIN,  J.     The  Eagle's  Nest.     Ten  Lectures  on  the  Relation 

of  Natural  Science  to  Art.     Orpington:  1880. 
RUSKIN,  J.     The  Two  Paths :  being  Lectures  on  Art,  and  its 

Application  to  Decoration  and  Manufacture.     Orpington  : 

1884. 
RUSKIN,  J.    Aratra  Pentelici:    Six  Lectures  on  the  Elements  of 

Sculpture,  delivered  at  Oxford.     1870. 

The  reading  of  Ruskin  is  a  powerful  stimulus  to  the  sense 
for  beauty,  but  a  bad  propaedeutic  to  the  science  of  aesthetics. 
Ruskin's  dogmatism,  eccentricity,  and  exaggeration  are  con- 
tagious, and  make  upon  the  novice  impressions  from  which  he 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  115 

does  not  readily  recover.  A  careful  study  of  the  relations  of 
art  to  ethics,  and  the  acquisition  of  sound  views  on  the  main 
questions  of  political  economy,  will  fortify  the  student  against 
Ruskin's  most  harmful  perversities.  Leslie  Stephen's  article 
(Fraser  89  :  688)  on  Ruskin's  later  works,  and  a  criticism  of 
the  third  volume  of  the  Modern  Painters  by  C.  C.  Everett  in 
No.  Am.  84:  379,  may  be  recommended.  Milsand's  L'Es- 
thetique  Anglaise  is  perhaps  the  most  thorough  criticism  of 
Ruskin's  Aesthetics  as  a  whole.  See,  also,  P.  Bayne,  essays  in 
Biography  and  Criticism,  ist  ser.,  pp.  281-333,  and  Lessons 
from  My  Masters,  by  the  same  author,  pp.  380-449  ;  A.  H. 
Japp's.  Three  Great  Teachers,  pp.  187-243;  and  Bosanquet's 
Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  447-460.  The  best  of  Ruskin  is  in  vols.  I— 
III  of  Modern  Painters. 

SCHASLER,  M.  Aesthetik  (Das  Wisscn  der  Gcgenwart,  Bd.  55). 
1886. 

SCHASLER,  M.  Das  System  der  Kiinste  aus  e.  neuen,  im  Wesen 
der  Kunst  begriindeten  Gliederungsprincip.  2.Aufl.  Leip- 
zig: 1885. 

SCHASLER,  M.  Grundziige  d.  Wissenschaft  d.  Schonen  und  der 
Kunst.  2  vols.  1886. 

SCHASLER,  M.     Kritische  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik.     2  vols. 

Berlin:  1872. 

Schasler's  Geschichte  is  the  standard  work  on  the  general 
history  of  aesthetics.  On  the  whole  it  is  remarkably  compre- 
hensive, though  important  names  in  French  and  English  aesthet- 
ics are  conspicuously  absent.  The  place  of  an  index  is  in  part 
supplied  by  a  very  full  table  of  contents.  For  German  Aesthet- 
ics since  Kant,  Lotze's  and  Von  Hartmann's  histories  are  more 
complete  in  some  ways,  the  latter  bringing  the  history  down  to 
very  recent  times.  Schasler's  work  has  not  been  translated  into 
English.  For  a  criticism  of  certain  portions,  see  Bosanquet's 
Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  i66ff.,  180-182,  246. 


116  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

SCHELLING,  F.  W.  J.  VON.  Sammtliche  Werke.  Stuttgart : 
1856-61. 

Bd.  V,  Abth.  i,  p.  357  Philosophie  der  Kunst ;  Bd.  VII,  Abth.  i, 
pp.  289—329  Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  der  bildenden  Kunste  zu  der 
Natur. 

The  objective  idealism  of  Schelling  is  derived  from  Kant  and 
Schiller  on  the  one  hand,  from  Winckelmann  on  the  other. 
For  his  theory  of  art  and  its  influence  upon  Hegel,  see  Bosan- 
quet's  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  pp.  316-334;  Watson's  Schilling's 
Transcendental  Idealism  (Chicago:  1882),  pp.  181—190;  von 
Hartmann's  Deutsche  Aesthetik,  pp.  27-44  (abstract  idealism) ; 
Schasler,  pp.  827-870. 

SCHILLER,  J.  C.  F.  Sammtliche  Werke.  12  vols.  in  6.  Stutt- 
gart :  1847. 

Bd.  V,  pp.  375-383  Ueber  den  Gebrauch  des  Chors  in  der  Trago- 
die  ;  Bd.  XI,  pp.  383-483;  Bd.  XII  Aesthetische  Schriften. 

SCHILLER,  J.  C.  F.  The  Aesthetic  Letters,  Essays,  and  the 
Philosophical  Letters.  Translated,  with  an  Introduction, 
by  J.  Weiss.  Boston  :  1845. 

SCHILLER,  J.  C.  F.  Works:  Historical  Dramas,  etc.  Trans. 
London :  1854. 

Pp.  439-444  On  the  Use  of  the  Chorus  in  Tragedy. 

Most  of  Schiller's  aesthetic  writings,  and  especially  his  Aes- 
thetic Letters,  are  well  adapted  to  the  understanding  of  begin- 
ners. Their  place  in  the  history  of  Aesthetics,  however,  can  be 
appreciated  only  when  they  are  read  in  the  light  of  Kant's 
Critique  of  Judgment,  from  which  their  material  is  principally 
drawn.  Attention  may  be  called  to  Schiller's  treatment  of  the 
play-impulse  (Spieltrieb),  and  the  development  of  the  same  idea 
by  Herbert  Spencer.  On  his  theory  of  Poetry  see  note  under 
SCHILLER,  §  20. 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  117 

SCHLEGEL,  A.  W.  VON.     Kritische  Schriften.     2  vols.     Berlin: 
1828. 

Theil  i,  pp.  416-436  ;  Theil  2,  pp.  145-336. 

SCHLEGEL,  F.  VON.     The  Aesthetic  and  Miscellaneous  Works. 
Trans,  by  E.  J.  Millington.     London  :  1860.     (Bohn  Libr.) 

Pp.  413-424  On  the  Limits  of  the  Beautiful.     See,  also,  Index. 
On   the   Schlegels,  see  Hegel's  criticism,  Aesthetik,  vol.  I, 
pp.  83-90  (Bosanquet's  translation,  pp.  120-132). 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.     Sammtliche  Werke.     Hrsg.  von  J.  Frauen- 
stadt.     6  vols.     Leipzig:  1877. 

Bd.  II,  pp.  197-316  Object  der  Kunst ;  Bd.  Ill,  pp.  99-112  ;  The- 
orie  des  Lacherlichen  ;  Bd.  VI,  pp.  447,  448  Metaphysik  des 
Schonen  und  Aesthetik,  536-586  Schriftstellerei  und  Stil. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.     The  World  as  Will  and  Idea.     Trans,  by 
R.  B.  Haldane  and  J.  Kemp.     3  vols.     London  :  1883. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  219-346  The  object  of  Art ;  vol.  II,  pp.  270-284  Theory 
of  the  Ludicrous;  vol.  Ill,  pp.  173-219,  231-244  Aesthetics. 

Perhaps  the  most  readable  and  entertaining  of  modern  writ- 
ers on  aesthetics,  but  valuable  rather  for  his  remarks  by  the 
way  than  for  his  system  as  a  whole.  Indeed,  the  reader  will  do 
well  to  guard  himself  against  the  seductions  of  Schopenhauer's 
brilliant  logic  by  some  previous  study  of  his  philosophical 
standpoint.  Cf.  especially  his  theory  of  ideas  with  that  of 
Plato.  In  his  treatment  of  the  ludicrous  Schopenhauer  has 
made  a  real  contribution  to  aesthetic  doctrine.  See  Everett's 
Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty,  p.  171  et  seq. 

SHAFTESBURY,  COOPER,  A.  A.,  3d  Earl  of.     Characteristicks. 
3  vols.     1749. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  3-38  Enthusiasm,  41-101   Wit  and  Humor,  105-245 

Advice  to  an  Author;  vol.  Ill,  pp.  5-233  Miscellaneous,  269- 

279  Art  of  Design.     See,  also,  index,  vol.  Ill,  following  p.  267. 

Shaftesbury  is  a  kind  of  Christian  Platonist  on  a  small  scale. 

He  divides  the  field  of  experience  into  the  True,  the  Good,  and 


118  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  8. 

the  Beautiful,  but  makes  confusion  by  attempting  to  bring  the 
second  division  under  the  third.  Bosanquet  (Hist,  of  Aesth., 
p.  178)  points  out  in  Shaftesbury  an  interesting  anticipation  of 
Lessing's  Laocoon. 

SOLGER,  K.  W.  F.     Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Aesthetik.     Leipzig  : 

'18^9. 

For  characterization  see  Schasler,  pp.  875-910.  His  aes- 
thetic resembles  that  of  Schelling  in  its  symbolic  and  allegorical 
tendency.  On  Solger's  doctrine  of  the  affinity  of  the  ugly  for 
certain  phases  of  the  beautiful  see  Bosanquet,  pp.  394-397. 

SPENCER,  H.     The  Principles  of  Psychology.     2  vols.     New 
York:  1885. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  272-290  Pleasures  and  Pains,  472-494  The  Feelings  ; 
vol.  II,  pp.  539-557  Language  of  the  Emotions,  627—648  The 
Aesthetic  Sentiments. 

SPENCER,  H.     Education.     New  York  :  1883. 
Pp.  71-84.  .^ 

SPENCER,  H.     Essays:  Moral,  Political,  and  Aesthetic.     New 
York:  1873. 

P.  9,  Philos.  of  Style,  149  Personal  Beauty,  312  Gracefulness. 

SPENCER,  H.     Essays:  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative. 

Philos.  of  Style,  Origin  and  Function  of  Music,  Physiology  of 
Laughter. 

SPENCER,  H.     Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress.     (Repr.  of 

preceding.) 

Spencer's  starting-point  is  Schiller's  Spieltrieb,  which  he  de- 
velops in  its  physiological  and  psychological  bearings.  His  the- 
ory of  the  ludicrous,  set  forth  in  the  essay  entitled  Physiology 
of  Laughter,  has  been  much  discussed.  His  doctrine  of  econ- 
omy is,  perhaps,  his  most  important  contribution  to  aesthetics. 

SULLY,  J.     '  Aesthetics,'  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.     gth  ed. 


§  8.]  REFERENCES.  119. 

SULLY,  J.     Sensation  and  Intuition:  Studies  in  Psychology  and 
Aesthetics.     London:  1874. 

Essays:  7-9  Music,  10  Aesthetic  Aspects  of  Character,  n  Char- 
acter in  Art,  12  Lessing's  Hamburg  Dramaturgy,  13  Possibility 
of  a  Science  of  Aesthetics. 

SULLY,  J.     Outlines  of  Psychology.     London:  1884. 

Pp.  316-329,  531-552. 

SULLY,  J.     Mind,  4:  172  Harmony  of  Colors. 
SULLY,  J.     Mind,  i  :  479  Art  and  Psychology. 

Sully  is  one  of  the  ablest  and  clearest  of  modern  writers  on 
aesthetics.  He  is  a  mild  empiricist,  a  psychologist  of  the 
school  of  Herbert  Spencer,  and  hence  somewhat  intolerant  of 
what  he  calls  "metaphysical  speculation."  Essay  13  of  Sen- 
sation and  Intuition,  and  the  first  part  of  the  article  in  the  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica,  will  be  of  especial  value  to  those  who 
are  seeking  for  a  statement  of  the  scientific  problems  of  aes- 
thetics. 

TAINE,   H.     The  Ideal  in  Art.     Trans,  by  J.  Durand.     New 
York:  1869. 

TAINE,  H.     Italy,  Florence,  and  Venice.     Trans,  by  J.  Durand. 
New  York:   1869. 

Pp.  98-159  Florentine  School  of  Art,  272—327  Venetian  Art. 

TAINE,  H.     Italy,  Naples,  and  Rome.     Trans,  by  J.  Durand. 
London:  1867. 

TAINE,  H.     Lectures  on  Art.     Trans,  by  J.  Durand.     2d  ser. 
(Italy,  the  Netherlands,  Greece.)     New  York:  1877. 

TAINE,  H.     The  Philosophy  of  Art.     London:  1867. 

According  to  Brunetiere,  Taine  has  put  in  circulation  more 
new  and  suggestive  ideas  upon  art  than  any  writer  since  Hegel. 
In  two  points  this  statement  is  open  to  question.  It  may  be 
doubted  whether  his  ideas  were  strikingly  original,  and  it  may 


120  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§8. 

also  be  doubted  whether  they  were  numerous.  But  with  regard 
to  their  superior  suggestiveness  Brunetiere  is  unquestionably  in 
the  right.  Taine's  views  have  aroused  more  criticism,  friendly 
or  hostile,  and  set  more  brains  at  work  upon  problems  of  aes- 
thetics, than  the  views  of  any  other  writer  of  the  time.  For 
this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  the  student  should  become  familiar 
with  his  writings. 

For  criticisms  of  Taine  see  J.  Spec.  Philos.  10:  i;  Colvin's 
article  on  Fine  Art  in  Encyc.  Brit.,  vol.  IX,  p.  214;  Brunetiere's 
L'EVolution  des  Genres,  etc.,  vol.  I,  pp.  245—278  ;  Edm.  Scher- 
er's  fitude  Critique,  vol.  IV,  pp.  253-272  ;  AmiePs  Journal 
Intime,  vol.  II,  p.  in;  J.  Fiske's  The  Unseen  World  and  other 
Essays  (Boston:  1876),  p.  280;  Sainte-Beuve,  Causeries  de 
Lundi  (in  Essays  of  Sainte-Beuve,  translated  by  Eliz.  Lee, 
London:  1894);  C.  de  Mazade,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  15  Juillet 
1867,  p.  499. 

VAN  DYKE,  J.  C.     Principles  of  Art.     New  York:  1887. 

A  brief  manual  in  which  will  be  found  clear  statements  of  the 
leading  problems  in  art.  See  especially  pp.  173-199.  The 
work  is  in  two  parts,  the  first  dealing  with  art  in  history,  the 
second  with  art  in  theory. 

VERON,  E.     Aesthetics.     Trans,  by  W.  H.  Armstrong.     Lon- 
don :  1879. 

The  author  was  long  the  editor  of  L1  Art,  the  leading  French 
art  journal,  and  his  treatment  of  aesthetics  is  colored  largely  by 
his  bent  toward  pictorial  art.  His  consideration  of  other  forms 
of  art,  especially  of  literature,  is  inadequate  to  their  importance. 
The  work,  as  a  whole,  is  rambling  and  exclamatory,  but  full  of 
suggestion  drawn  from  long  experience  as  critic.  The  English 
translation  is  good,  and  easily  to  be  procured.  An  interesting 
but  not  altogether  trustworthy  essay  on  Plato's  Aesthetics  forms 
an  appendix  to  the  volume. 


§9, /.]  COURSES   OF  STUDY.  121 

VISCHER,  F.  T.     Aesthetik  oder  Wissenschaft  des  Schonen.     3 

vols.     Reutlingen :   1846. 

The  truly  German  proportions  of  Vischer's  work,  and  the 
juicelessness  of  his  style,  are  likely  to  deter  any  except  the 
most  determined  student  of  aesthetics  from  examining  what  is 
undoubtedly  one  of  the  ablest  treatises  on  the  subject  in  any 
language.  Fortunately  the  value  of  the  work  lies  rather  in  the 
elaboration  of  the  details  than  in  the  system,  and  a  full  table  of 
contents,  and  an  astonishingly  complete  index,  enable  the  stu- 
dent to  find  whatever  topic  he  desires.  (As  an  example  of  his 
comprehensiveness,  see  index  under  Shakespeare.)  As  Schas- 
ler  points  out,  Vischer  is  particularly  fruitful  in  his  treatment 
of  the  beauty  of  nature.  See  vol.  II,  pp.  3-78.  For  his  treat- 
ment of  the  relations  of  nature  to  art,  see  vol.  Ill,  pp.  77-86. 
A  criticism  of  Vischer  may  be  found  in  Schasler,  vol.  II,  p.  1040, 
or  briefer,  p.  1087. 

XENOPHON.  The  Anabasis  .  .  and  the  Memorabilia  (Bohn  Libr.). 
Pp.  447-450  Socrates  on  Beauty,  454-456  Painting  and  Sculpture, 
499  Beauty. 

XENOPHON.     Minor  Works. 

Pp.  176-178  Banquet,  chap.  V. 

These  are  the  sources  for  the  aesthetics  of  Socrates.  Es- 
pecial attention  should  be  given  to  the  idea  of  utility,  or  pur- 
pose, as  standard  of  beauty,  presented  in  the  passages  of  the 
Memorabilia  referred  to  above. 

§9.    GENERAL   NOTE. 

/.  Courses  of  study.  —  In  suggesting  a  course  of  study  in 
the  theory  of  art,  as  an  introduction  to  the  study  of  literary 
criticism,  account  must  be  taken  of  two  pretty  distinct  classes 
of  students  :  first,  those  who  prefer  to  take  their  opinions  from 
trustworthy  authorities  without  being  put  to  much  expense  of 


122  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  L§  9,  / 

time  and  trouble  ;  second,  those  who,  desiring  to  form  for 
themselves  an  independent  judgment,  are  determined  to  go  to 
the  bottom  of  the  matter  at  whatever  cost.  These  two  classes, 
since  their  aims  are  different,  will  of  necessity  pursue  their 
studies  in  a  somewhat  different  order  and  according  to  differ- 
ent methods. 

A.  GENERAL  READING.  —  i.  Every  student,  whatever  his  pur- 
pose may  be,  will  do  well  to  learn,  at  the  outset,  the  limits  of 
the  subject  he  is  to  pursue.  He  should  learn  also  the  most 
important  problems  that  are  likely  to  arise  in  the  course  of  his 
study,  and  should  make  himself  acquainted  with  the  names  of 
the  recognized  authorities.  These  facts  may  be  gleaned  from 
the  preface  (better,  from  the  whole)  of  Professor  Knight's 
Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  Part  I,1  from  chapter  I  of  Bosan- 
quet's  History  of  Aesthetic,  from  Hamerton's  Portfolio  Papers, 
p.  163  ff.,  or  from  the  articles  on  Art,  Fine  Art,  and  Aesthetics 
in  the  gth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica.  The  stu- 
dent who  is  taking  a  general  survey  of  the  subject,  when  he 
has  thus  got  his  bearings  in  the  science,  should  next  try  to 
gain  some  familiarity  with  its  psychology  and  its  philosophy. 
On  the  first,  such  works  as  Dewey's  Psychology,  chapters  VII 
and  IX,  Sully's  Outlines  of  Psychology,  pp.  316-329,  531-552, 
and  Hoffding's  Outlines  (translated  by  Mary  E.  Lowndes, 
London:  1891),  pp.  274—387,  may  profitably  be  consulted;  or, 
if  these  prove  too  abstruse  for  the  beginner,  a  gentler  approach 
is  open  to  him  through  the  first  chapter  of  Everett's  Poetry, 
Comedy,  and  Duty,  or  the  article  in  Mind  i  :  479  on  Art  and 
Psychology. 

For  the  philosophical  treatment,  Knight's  Philosophy  of  the 
Beautiful,  Part  II,  and  Baldwin  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts  will  be 

i  For  details  of  bibliography,  see  the  references  under  §  8,  and  for  further  refer- 
ences, if  they  are  desired,  consult  A  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Aesthetics,  by  C.  M. 
Gayley  and  F.  N.  Scott  (Berkeley:  1890). 


A.}  COUKSES  OF  STUDY.  123 

found  especially  serviceable.  Both  are  admirable  in  spirit, 
and  so  elementary  in  character  that  they  may  be  understood 
and  enjoyed  by  any  one.  On  the  same  plane  is  an  article  by 
Professor  Seeley  in  Macmillan's  16  :  i  Elementary  Principles  of 
Art.  More  difficult  to  follow,  but  well  worth  the  extra  effort, 
are  the  lecture  by  Professor  G.  S.  Morris  in  Jl.  Spec.  Philos. 
10  :  i  on  the  Philosophy  of  Art,  and  the  paper  on  Art,  by 
W.  P.  Ker,  in  Seth  and  Haldane's  Essays  in  Philosophical 
Criticism  (London  :  1883). 

The  student  who  has  read  the  foregoing  with  intelligence 
and  appreciation  has  made  a  fair  beginning.  He  has  done 
more,  perhaps,  than  the  majority  of  those  who  enter  upon  the 
advanced  study  of  literature.  Should  he  wish,  however,  to 
continue  his  reading,  the  following  suggestions  may  be  helpful. 

2.  Of  the  writings  that  fill  an  important  place  in  the  history 
of  aesthetics,  there  are  many  which  can  be  properly  under- 
stood only  in  connection  with  the  philosophical  systems  of 
which  they  form  component  parts.  Though  profoundly  inter- 
esting to  the  specialist,  the  casual  reader  is  apt  to  find 
them  obscure  and  contradictory.  But  it  sometimes  happens 
that  of  an  abstruse  treatise  some  part  is  fairly  well  adapted  to 
the  needs  of  the  general  reader.  Such,  for  example,  is  the 
Introduction  to  Hegel's  Aesthetik.  This  valuable  work  is  now 
available  in  an  excellent  translation  (by  Bernard  Bosanquet, 
London  :  1886),  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  student. 
Others  of  these  important  contributions  to  the  history  of 
aesthetic  are  of  a  semi-popular  character  throughout.  To 
this  class  belongs  Goethe's  Conversations  with  Eckermann. 
In  this  fascinating  work  almost  all  the  main  questions  of  art- 
theory  are  touched  upon  and  rendered  luminous.  In  the  same 
category  may  be  placed  Schiller's  Aesthetic  Letters,  which,  by 
their  enthusiasm  and  the  charm  of  their  style,  carry  the  student 
into  philosophic  deeps  that  with  another  companion  he  might 
not  venture  to  explore.  More  readable  still  are  the  aesthetic 


124  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,7. 

writings  of  Schopenhauer,  most  brilliant  and  entertaining  of 
modern  philosophers,  the  value  of  whose  works,  however,  lies 
rather  in  remarks  by  the  way  than  in  main  conclusions.  Les- 
sing's  Laocoon  is  delightful  reading,  and  not  less  important  as 
a  contribution  to  aesthetics  than  as  a  contribution  to  literature. 
Cousin's  lectures  on  the  True,  the  Beautiful,  and  the  Good, 
which  at  one  time  enjoyed  no  little  vogue  as  a  text-book,  are 
written  in  popular  form,  but  cannot  be  recommended  as  an 
adequate  presentation  of  aesthetic  theory.  Ruskin  is,  of 
course,  read  by  every  one,  and  should  be ;  but,  by  the  begin- 
ner, he  should  be  read  rather  for  his  descriptions  than  for 
his  philosophy.  As  a  corrective  of  over-enthusiasm  for  Ruskin 
may  be  read  Miss  Paget's  article  on  Ruskinism,  in  Belcaro. 
In  seeking  to  rectify  Ruskin's  moral  bias,  Miss  Paget  goes 
far  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  careful  yet  popular  criticism 
of  the  third  volume  of  Modern  Painters  will  be  found  in  an 
article  by  Professor  Everett  in  No.  Am.  84 :  379. 

3.  To  make  popular  expositions  of  the  results  of  aesthetic 
speculation  has  been  the  aim  of  many  writers.  A  few  of  these 
will  be  referred  to.  Miss  Paget  (Vernon  Lee)  writes  with  a 
capricious  self-assurance  that  makes  her  occasional  essays 
charming  literature.  They  are  interesting,  however,  rather  as 
recording  the  shifting  moods  of  a  sensitive  personality  than  as 
constituting  careful  and  connected  thinking  about  art.  Bel- 
caro (London  :  1886)  and  Juvenilia  (London  :  1887),  collec- 
tions of  articles  upon  sculpture,  music,  and  poetry,  originally 
printed  in  the  English  magazines,  are  full  of  fresh  and  striking 
observations.  Miss  Paget's  most  ambitious  flight  is  an  article 
on  Comparative  Aesthetics,  in  Contemp.  38  : 300,  a  not  alto- 
gether successful  attempt  to  weld  Hegel  and  Taine.  It  is  an 
interesting  article,  and  exceedingly  suggestive  to  beginners. 
The  essay  on  the  Value  of  the  Ideal,  in  Baldwin  (London  : 
1886),  defines  pretty  clearly  her  philosophical  position,  in  so 
far  as  she  can  be  said  to  have  one.  Walter  Pater's  delicacy  of 


A.]  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  125 

intuition  leads  him  to  safe  conclusions  even  where  his  writings 
seem  mere  transcripts  of  impression.  The  fundamental  princi- 
ple of  his  aesthetic  is  perhaps  most  clearly  set  forth  in  his 
essay  on  Style,  in  Appreciations  (London  :  1889).  In  connec- 
tion with  this  essay  should  be  read  the  introduction  and  con- 
clusion of  his  Studies  in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance,  and 
the  essay  on  Winckelmann,  published  in  the  same  volume. 
Based  upon  a  consistent  and  easily  comprehensible  theory  of 
art,  are  the  critical  writings  of  J.  A.  Symonds.  In  one  or  two 
places  the  author  has  stated  them  with  some  explicitness;  for 
example,  in  the  Renaissance  in  Italy,  the  Catholic  Reaction, 
Part  II,  pp.  396-402,  and  Essays,  Speculative  and  Suggestive 
(London  :  1890).  Upon  the  last-named  work,  see  the  criti- 
cism in  Nation  51  :  173.  [The  younger  Symonds  should  not 
be  confused  with  J.  A.  Symonds,  M.D.,  author  of  Principles 
of  Beauty  (London  :  1857).]  Less  speculative,  and  more  sci- 
entific are  the  writings  of  Edmund  Gurney,  whose  magazine 
articles  have  been  collected  in  the  Power  of  Sound  (London  : 
1880)  and  Tertium  Quid  (2  v.  London  :  1887).  The  third 
chapter  of  the  Power  of  Sound  is  an  exposition  of  the  author's 
aesthetics.  Sully  is  not  to  be  mentioned  in  the  category  of 
the  merely  popular,  though  the  clearness  and  simplicity  of  his 
treatment  of  difficult  matters  adapt  his  writings  to  the  needs 
of  the  beginner.  His  Sensation  and  Intuition  presents  the 
scientific  aspect  of  many  important  questions. 

4.  Inquiries  are  often  made  by  students  for  some  popular 
compend  which  shall  embrace  within  its  covers  all  the  infor- 
mation about  art  that  any  one  need  acquire.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  say  that  all  such  hopes  are  vain ;  no  such  book 
exists  or  ever  will  exist.  Nevertheless,  as  popular  com- 
pends  have  their  value,  some  of  the  most  notable  will  be 
briefly  indicated.  Day's  Science  of  Aesthetics  (New  York  : 
1876),  being  designed  for  a  text-book,  deals  mainly  in  formal 
definitions  and  classifications.  Samson's  Elements  of  Art 


126  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,7. 

Criticism,  recently  reissued  in  condensed  form,  aims  at  great 
comprehensiveness,  but  really  does  little  more  than  bring  into 
juxtaposition  unrelated  details.  Harris's  Theory  of  the  Arts  is 
largely  composed  of  commonplaces  grouped  about  a  theory  of 
no  great  worth  or  coordinating  power.  McDermot's  Critical 
Dissertation  is  clear  enough,  but  antiquated.  The  popularity 
enjoyed  by  Bascom's  Aesthetics  (New  York :  1886)  has  been 
deserved  by  the  lucidity  and  readableness  of  the  text.  The 
prominence  given  to  the  author's  ethical  and  theological  views 
may  seem  to  some  a  trifle  obtrusive.  Van  Dyke's  Principles 
of  Art  covers  much  ground,  but  is  restricted  by  its  small  com- 
pass to  a  brief  treatment  of  the  separate  topics.  A  useful 
primer  of  art  is  Lucy  Crane's  Lectures  on  Art  and  the  Forma- 
tion of  Taste  (Six  Lectures.  Illustr.  by  T.  &  W.  Crane.  Lon- 
don :  1882). 

Of  the  French  compends,  Gauckler's  Le  Beau  is  perhaps  the 
simplest  and  handiest.  Veron  aims  to  cover  the  whole  field  of 
speculation,  but  is  exceedingly  unsystematic. 

In  the  German  language,  Lemcke's  Populare  Aesthetik,  al- 
though condemned  by  Schasler  as  trivial  and  conventional,  is 
about  the  best  thing  of  the  kind  to  be  obtained.  Other  Ger- 
man compends  are  StockeFs  Allg.  Lehrbuch  d.  Aesthetik 
(3.  Aufl.  Mainz  :  1889)  and  Prolss's  Katechismus  d.  Aesthetik 
(2.  Aufl.  Leipzig:  1889). 

B.  SUGGESTIONS  FOR  HISTORICAL  STUDY. —  i.  For  the  second 
class  of  students,  those  who  desire  to  make  themselves  thor- 
oughly at  home  in  this  subject,  there  is  no  method  so  satisfac- 
tory as  the  historical.  First  obtaining  a  general  view  of  the 
science  in  the  manner  recommended  above  (§  9,  ^),  let  the  stu- 
dent resolutely  attack  the  aesthetic  doctrines  of  the  Greeks. 
The  theories  of  Socrates  may  be  gathered  from  Xenophon's 
Memorabilia  and  Banquet.  Of  Plato's  dialogues,  the  Ion, 
Phaedo,  Symposium,  Gorgias,  and  Philebus  should  be  read 


#.]  .  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  127 

entire,  and  at  least  books  II,  III,  VII-X  of  the  Republic. 
Jowett's  translation  of  the  dialogues  is,  of  course,  unrivaled, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  Republic,  where  it  shares  honors  with 
that  of  Davies  and  Vaughan.  Aristotle's  Poetics  should  be 
studied,  if  possible,  in  the  original.  Of  the  translations,  Whar- 
ton's  is  by  far  the  best.1  The  passages  of  the  Rhetoric,  Meta- 
physics, and  Psychology  that  throw  light  on  Aristotle's  theory 
of  art,  should  not  escape  attention.  The  writings  of  Plotinus 
and  Longinus  are  important  for  the  history  of  aesthetics,  but  if 
time  presses  may  be  left  for  later  investigation. 

2.  The  Germans  should  next  receive  attention.  In  taking 
up  the  German  authorities,  it  is  desirable  that  some  acquaint- 
ance should  first  be  formed  with  the  theories  and  results  of 
Baumgarten  (Aesthetica,  Frankfurt  a.  d.  Oder:  1750-58),  Les- 
sing,  and  Winckelmann.  All  of  the  Laokoon  should  be  read, 
and  of  Winckelmarin's  History  of  Greek  Art,  at  least  the  Intro- 
duction. Passing  then  to  Kant,  the  student  should  master  the 
principles  of  the  Kritik  der  Aesthetischen  Urtheilskraft  by  a 
reading  of  the  text  in  the  original  or  in  Bernard's  translation, 
or  by  a  careful  study  of  Caird's  Critical  Philosophy  of  Kant, 
vol.  II,  pp.  420-476.  The  aesthetic  writings  of  Goethe  and 
Schiller  may  next  be  taken  up.  Much  of  Goethe's  writing  on 
aesthetics  is  still  untranslated,  as,  for  example,  the  Deutsche 
Baukunst ;  but  the  Conversations,  the  Correspondence  with 
Schiller,  Wahrheit  und  Dichtung,  and  several  of  the  shorter 
essays  may  be  had  in  fair  English  translations.  Schiller  may 
be  read  in  Weiss's  translation  or  in  the  Bohn  Library  edition. 
Especial  attention  should  be  directed  to  Schiller's  indebtedness 
to  Kant,  and  to  his  advance  upon  the  latter.  Schelling's  Phi- 
losophic der  Kunst,  of  considerable  importance  in  the  historical 
sequence,  must  be  read  in  the  original,  if  read  at  all.  With 
Hegel's  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Aesthetik  the  student  should 

1  A  new  translation  by  Professor  S.  H.  Butcher,  which  has  just  appeared  (London: 
1895),  takes  rank  with  Wharton's.  See  §  20  under  ARISTOTLE. 


128  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,7. 

make  himself  thoroughly  at  home.  If  it  is  too  much  to  ask  of. 
the  student  that  he  read  the  Aesthetik  entire  —  a  task  which 
will  amply  repay  him  for  his  lime  —  let  him  at  least  read  all  the 
available  translations.  Bosanquet's  admirable  rendering  of  the 
Einleitung  and  Eintheilung  puts  in  the  student's  hands  the  key  to 
the  entire  work.  Hastie  has  translated  pp.  1—30  of  the  Einleitung 
and  pp.  105-114  of  the  Eintheilung.  Kedney's  exposition 
goes  over  the  whole  Aesthetik,  but  has  serious  limitations, 
which  are  pointed  out  above  in  §  8.  Much  translation  of 
Hegel's  Aesthetik,  made  through  the  medium  of  a  French  para- 
phrase, will  be  found  in  the  //.  Spec.  Philos.  For  reference 
to  it,  see  §  8,  under  Hegel. 

Of  the  remaining  German  writers  Schopenhauer  and  Lotze 
may  be  read  in  translation.  Then  follows  a  long  list  of  those 
whose  works  have  not  been  translated,  and  perhaps  will  never 
be  translated,  such  as  Ruge  (Neue  Vorschule  d.  Aesth.  Halle: 
1837),  SchleiermacKer  (Vorles.  iib.  Aesth.  Berlin:  1842),  Sol- 
ger,  Richter,  Weisse  (System  d.  Aesth.  als  Wissensch.  v.  d. 
Idee  d.  Schonen.  Leipzig:  1830),  Vischer,  whose  monster 
treatise  is  a  complete  encyclopaedia  of  aesthetic  theory,  Krause 
(System  der  Aesthetik.  Leipzig:  1882),  Zimmermann  (Allge- 
meine  Aesthetik.  2  vols. :  1858-65),  Carriere  (one  of  the  most 
popular  of  German  writers),  Schasler,  Kostlin,  Von  Kirchmann 
(Aesth.  auf  realistischer  Grundl.  Berlin :  1869),  Horwicz 
(Grundl.  e.  Systems  d.  Aesthetik.  Leipzig  :  1869),  and  Siebeck 
(Das  Wesen  d.  aesth.  Anschauung.  Berlin:  1875).  Trahn- 
dorff  (Aesthetik.  2  vols.  Berlin:  1830)  has  been  revived  by 
Von  Hartmann  (Philos.  Monatshefte  22:  59),  but  hardly  seems 
entitled  to  the  space  allotted  to  him  by  the  latter  in  his  Aes- 
thetik (I.  129-156).  Herbart's  wide-reaching  influence  in  psy- 
chology makes  it  desirable  to  know  something  of  his  aesthetics, 
in  which  he  includes  his  ethical  theory.  Zeising's  name  (Aes- 
thetische  Forschungen.  Frankfurt  a.  M.:  1855)  is  so  identified 
with  the  '  golden  section '  that  his  other  theories  are  generally 


B.}  COURSES   OF  STUDY.  129 

neglected.  Though  his  standpoint  is  Hegelian,  his  aesthetic 
is  influenced  by  Herbart.  The  psychophysicist,  Fechner,  who 
has  verified  by  elaborate  experiment  the  discovery  of  Zeising, 
represents  a  revolt  against  the  method  of  speculative  aesthetics. 
The  investigations  of  Helmholtz  with  reference  to  the  physiol- 
ogy of  sound  and  of  light  (Optique  Physiologique.  Paris  :  1867) 
are  indispensable  to  the  specialist.  Wherever  he  has  expanded 
his  theories  in  systematic  form,  Helmholtz  has  followed  the 
lines  laid  down  by  Kant  in  his  Critique  of  Judgment.  The 
most  formidable,  and  at  the  same  time  one  of  the  ablest,  of  late 
contributions  to  aesthetics,  is  the  systematic  treatise  of  Von 
Hartmann.  It  is  defective  in  that  it  gives  little  or  no  space  to 
art  in  its  historical  aspect. 

3.  Among  the  French  writers,  P.  Andre  (Traite  sur  le  beau, 
in  CEuvres  Philos.  Paris:  1843),  Buffier  (Sur  la  Nature  du 
Gout,  in  Cours  general  et  particulier  des  Sciences.  Paris:  1732), 
Batteux  (Les  Beaux  Arts  reduits  a  un  meme  principe.  Paris : 
1747),  and  Diderot,  in  the  last  century;  and  Cousin,  Jouffroy, 
Pictet  (Du  Beau  dans  la  Nature.  Paris:  1856),  Le'veque, 
Chaignet  (Principes  de  la  Science  du  Beau.  Paris:  1860), 
Prudhomme  (L'Expression  dans  les  Beaux-Arts.  Paris:  1883), 
Taine,  and  Veron,  in  the  present  century,  have  the  strongest 
claim  to  attention.  Of  the  whole  number  the  treatise  of 
Leveque  is  the  most  systematic.  Chaignet  is  most  interested 
in  the  psychology  of  aesthetics.  The  brilliancy  of  Taine's 
style,  and  the  glib  simplicity  of  his  system,  have  made  his  the- 
ories better  known  in  this  country  than  those  of  any  other  for- 
eign writer.  His  caractere  essentiel  should  be  compared  with 
Herder's  Bedeutsame,  Hirt's  Charakteristische,  and  Goethe's 
Bedeutende.1  (See  Schasler's  Gesch.  d.  Aesth.,  vol.  I,  pp.  498, 

1  For  his  celebrated  formula  of  the  race,  the  moment,  and  the  environment,  Taine 
was  indebted  to  Hegel's  Aesth.,  vol.  I,  p.  20  :  "  Sodann  gehort  jedes  Kunstwerk  seiner 
Zeit,  seinem  Volke,  seiner  Umgebung  an."  Brunetiere,  who  adds  to  the  three  condi- 
tions specified  by  Taine  the  element  of  individuality  (L'Evolution  des  Genres  dans 
1'Histoire  de  la  Litt.,  vol.  I,  p.  22),  seems  also  to  have  been  anticipated  by  Hegel, 


130  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,7. 

499,  Hegel's  Aesth.,  vol.  I,  pp.  23-26,  Bosanquet's  translation, 

PP-  31-37-) 

Of  late  writers  who  have  discussed  special  topics  with  ability 
should  be  mentioned  Benard,  Milsand,  Guyau,  Se'ailles,  Lechalas, 
Souriau,  Charles  Henry,  Arre"at,  Paulhan,  and  Sorel.  All  have 
been  frequent  contributors  to  the  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  or  the 
Rev.  Philosophique.  Benard  represents  the  Hegelian  influence. 
Henry  inclines  to  the  mathematical  interpretation  of  aesthetic 
facts.  Sorel  is  a  follower  of  Fechner.  The  writings  of  Guyau 
throw  much  light  on  the  social  aspect  of  art. 

4.  English  aesthetics,  because  the  science  has  not  been  recog- 
nized as  a  department  of  philosophy,  has  been  slow  in  taking 
systematic  form.  The  attitude  of  the  British  mind,  up  to  a 
very  late  period,  is  perhaps  best  indicated  by  the  brief  note  in 
the  eighth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica :  — 

"  AESTHETICS.  —  A  term  .  .  .  employed  by  the  followers  of 
the  German  metaphysicians  to  designate  philosophical  investi- 
gations into  the  theory  of  the  Beautiful  or  Philosophy  of  the 
Fine  Arts,  which  they  are  disposed  to  regard  as  a  distinct  sci- 
ence. .  .  .  Aesthetic  speculations  do  not  appear  to  have  con- 
tributed anything  to  the  improvement  of  the  fine  arts,  or  to  our 
real  knowledge  of  mental  phenomena." 

Nevertheless  the  number  of  British  investigators  has  been 
large,  and  their  contributions  to  the  science  have  been  of  the 
utmost  importance.  Bacon,  Shaftesbury,  Hutcheson,  Reid, 
Hume,  Stewart,  Lord  Kames,  Burke,  Alison,  Jeffrey,  and  Sir 
Wm.  Hamilton  are  the  most  important  of  the  earlier  writers. 
Of  the  modern  contributions,  Spencer's  chapter  on  the  Aesthetic 
Emotions  in  his  Psychology,  an  elaboration  of  Schiller's  doctrine 
of  the  Spieltrieb,  has  had  most  influence  on  scientific  thought ; 

Aesth.,  voL  I,  p.  45  :  "  Denn  das  Kunstwerk,  urn  seiner  zugleich  materiellen  und  indi- 
viduellen  Natur  willen,  geht  wesentlich  aus  besonderen  Bedingungen  der  mannig- 
fachsten  Art,  wozu  vorziiglich  Zeit  und  Ort  der  Entstehung,  dann  die  bestimmte 
Individualitat  des  Kiinstlers  und  hauptsachlich  die  technische  Ausbildung  der  Kunst 
gehoren,  hervor." 


£.]  COURSES  OF  STUDY.  131 

Ruskin's  Modern  Painters  most  influence  upon  the  popular  con- 
sciousness. Grant  Allen,  in  his  physiological  Aesthetics,  has 
followed  the  line  of  research  marked  out  by  Spencer,  and  has 
added  much  illustrative  material.  The  writings  of  William 
Morris  and  Oscar  Wilde  call  attention  to  the  social  side  of  art. 

5.  It  may  be  useful  to  those  pursuing  this  line  of  historical 
study  to  mention  some  of  the  most  important  histories  and 
critical  essays.  Among  the  general  histories  Bosanquet's  His- 
tory of  Aesthetic  is  easily  the  first.  It  has  the  merit  of  being 
a  contribution  to  the  history  of  culture  as  well  as  to  the  history 
of  aesthetics.  Knight's  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  pt.  I, 
though  much  humbler  in  its  aim,  deserves  honorable  mention 
in  the  list.  Of  the  German  works,  Schasler's  Kritische  Ge- 
schichte  should  be  noted  first  as  the  most  comprehensive.  Zim- 
mermann's  Geschichte  and  Herrmann's  Die  Aesthetik  in  ihrer 
Geschichte  are  valuable,  but  not  so  complete.  Sully's  article 
in  the  ninth  edition  of  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  though  ex- 
cellent for  reference,  does  not  pretend  to  be  more  than  a  sketch. 
Sully's  evolutionist  inclinations  lead  him  to  minimize  the  results 
of  German  speculation,  just  as  the  speculative  inclinations  of 
the  philosophical  writers  often  lead  them  to  minimize  the  results 
of  the  experimentalists.  Of  the  histories  of  philosophy  both 
Ueberweg's  and  Erdmann's  histories  give  generous  space  to 
aesthetics;  Windelband's  history  merely  touches  the  subject  in 
passing.  A  short  summary  of  aesthetic  theories  is  given  in 
Bain's  Mental  Science,  and  a  fuller  account  in  Leveque's  Sci- 
ence du  Beau. 

Of  authorities  on  Greek  aesthetics,  Ed.  Miiller's  Geschichte 
der  Theorie  der  Kunst  bei  den  Alten  (Breslau :  1834)  has  as 
yet  no  rival.  Egger's  Essai  sur  1'histoire  de  la  Critique  chez 
les  Grecs  is  admirably  clear,  but  is  concerned  rather  more  with 
rhetoric  and  poetics  than  with  aesthetics  proper.  The  first  vol- 
ume of  Chaignet's  Histoire  de  la  Psychologic  des Grecs  (Paris: 
1887)  systematizes  the  implied  psychology  of  Socrates  and 


132  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  /. 

Plato.  For  Chaignet's  treatment  of  Aristotle,  see  his  Essai  sur 
la  Psychologie  d'Aristote  (Paris  :  1884).  Zeller's  summaries  of 
Aristotle  and  Plato  (Die  Philosophic  der  Griechen,  3.  Aufl. 
Leipzig:  1879,  and  Plato  and  the  older  academy.  London: 
1876)  are  searching,  but  have  a  rigidity  peculiar  to  his  mode 
of  treatment.  The  article  by  Nettleship  in  Abbott's  Hellenica 
(Oxford  :  1880),  though  dealing  solely  with  the  Republic,  con- 
tains a  fairly  adequate  exposition  of  Plato's  theory  of  art.  Less 
technical,  and  therefore  of  more  interest  to  the  general  reader, 
is  Walter  Pater's  characteristic  study  of  Plato's  aesthetics  in  his 
Plato  and  Platonism  (New  York:  1893),  pp.  24-256.  Jowett's 
introductions  to  the  Dialogues  are  too  well  known  to  require 
commendation.  The  exposition  of  Plato,  which  forms  the  ap- 
pendix to  Veron's  Aesthetics,  is  superficial.  For  monographs  on 
Aristotle  see  §  8.  Doring's  Die  Kunstlehre  des  Aristoteles  is 
one  of  the  best.  It  contains  a  fairly  complete  bibliography. 
Teichmuller's  Aristotelische  Forschungen,  though  hard  and  dry, 
may  be  recommended  for  carefulness  and  minuteness  of  re- 
search. Be'nard's  L'Esthetique  d'Aristote  et  de  ses  Succes- 
seurs  (Paris:  1890)  is  done  with  the  author's  customary  thor- 
oughness. Benard  is  especially  severe  on  those  who  practice 
what  he  calls  I' Art  d'accoucher  les  grands  esprits,  i.e.,  who  read 
into  Aristotle  the  results  of  later  speculation. 

The  standard  history  of  German  aesthetics  is  that  of  Lotze, 
of  which  an  extended  exposition  may  be  found  in  Erdmann's 
Hjstory  of  Philosophy  (translation),  vol.  Ill,  pp.  315-322.  A 
brief  review  of  German  aesthetics  will  be  found  in  Von  Eye's 
Das  Reich  des  Schonen  (Berlin :  1878),  p.  38.  For  the  lines  of 
development  leading  up  to  Kant,  see  Fenner's  Die  Aesthetik 
Kants  und  seiner  Vorganger.  On  Kant  himself,  Caird's  expo- 
sition of  the  Critique  of  Judgment  is  entitled  to  particular  con- 
sideration. Essays  and  monographs  are  numerous.  Among 
them  may  be  mentioned  as  specially  worthy  of  note,  Friedlan- 
der's  Kant  in  seinem  Verhaltniss  zur  Kunst  und  schonen 


#.]  COURSES   OF  STUDY.  133 

Natur,  in  Preuss.Jahrb.  20  (2);.H.  Cohen's  Kant's  Begriindung 
der  Aesthetik  (Marburg:  1889);  H.  Falkenheim's  Die  Entsteh- 
ung  d.  Kantischen  aesthetik  (Diss.  Heidelberg  :  1890). 

German  writers  since  Kant  are  treated  with  minuteness  by 
Von  Hartmann  in  the  first  part  of  his  Aesthetik.  On  the  same 
period  Neudecker's  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Aes- 
thetik seit  Kant  (Wurz :  1878),  though  much  condensed,  is  of 
no  little  asssistance  to  the  student.  Of  especial  interest  is  that 
portion  of  Hegel's  Aesthetik  in  which  Hegel  points  out  the  re- 
awakening of  the  science  of  art  that  accompanied  the  reawak- 
ening of  German  philosophy  in  general  (Aesth.,  vol.  I,  pp.  72- 
88;  Bosanquet's  translation,  pp.  107-132).  It  contains  cri- 
tiques of  Kant,  Schiller,  Lessing,  Winckelmann,  Goethe,  the 
Schlegels,  Fichte,  Solger,  and  Tieck.  See,  on  the  same  move- 
ment, Bernard's  Bosanquet's  masterly  paper  on  The  Part 
Played  by  Aesthetic  in  the  Development  of  Modern  Philosophy, 
published  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Aristotelian  Society,  vol.  I, 
No.  2.  For  a  criticism  of  some  of  the  most  recent  German 
(and  other)  writers,  the  student  may  consult  Th.  Lipps's  Aes- 
thetischer  Litteraturbericht,  in  Philos.  Monatshefte  26  :  17,  169, 

323- 

Of  monographs  on  Schiller,  G.  Zimmermann's  Versuch  einer 
Schillerschen  Aesthetik  (Berlin:  1889),  and  K.  Berger's  Die 
Entwickelung  von  Schiller's  Aesthetik  (Weimar :  1894)  are  speci- 
mens of  careful  research.  See,  also,  L'Esthetique  de  Schiller, 
by  F.  Montargis  (Paris:  1890).  On  Schelling,  chap.  VII  of 
Watson's  volume  in  the  Griggs  Philosophical  Classics,  may  be 
profitably  consulted.  The  limitations  of  Kedney's  Exposition 
of  Hegel  are  pointed  out  above.  Some  assistance  may  be  de- 
rived from  Hastie's  somewhat  over-enthusiastic  introduction  to 
his  translation  of  Hegel  and  Michelet,  and  valuable  suggestions 
from  Ritchie's  review  of  Bosanquet's  translation,  Mind,  12  :  597. 
The  leading  article  in  vol.  XIII  of  the  British  and  Foreign  Re- 
(by  G.  H.  Lewes)  is  one  of  the  earliest  attempts  to  intro- 


134  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,7. 

duce  Hegel's  Aesthetics  to  English  readers.1  Both  Michelet 
and  Ulrici  (Princip.  u.  Methode  d.  Hegelschen  Philos.  Halle  : 
1841,  pp.  216-245)  nave  expounded  the  Aesthetik,  but  the 
original  will  be  found  in  most  cases  clearer  than  the  exposition. 

Schopenhauer's  aesthetic  doctrines  are  briefly  touched  upon 
by  Helen  Zimmern  in  Arthur  Schopenhauer,  His  Life  and  Phi- 
losophy, and  by  Bowen  in  his  Modern  Philosophy,  and  devel- 
oped at  some  length  by  H.  Klee  (Grundziige  einer  Aesth.  nach 
Schopenhauer)  and  S.  Stransky  (Versuch  d.  Entw.  e.  allg. 
Aesth.  auf  Schopenhauerischer  Grundl.).  E.  Reich's  Schopen- 
hauer als  Philosoph  der  Tragodie  deals  with  an  interesting 
feature  of  Schopenhauer's  aesthetic.  On  Lotze,  see  T.  Kogel's 
Lotze's  Aesthetik,  and  Rohr's  Kritische  Untersuchungen  iiber 
Lotze's  Aesthetik.  A  detailed  exposition  of  Fechner  may  be 
found  in  Erdmann's  History  of  Philos.  (translation),  vol.  Ill, 
296-298. 

An  excellent  monograph  on  Herbart  is  O.  Hostinsky's  Her- 
bart's  Aesthetik  in  ihren  grundlegenden  Theilen  quellenmassig 
dargestellt  und  erlautert  (Hamburg:  1890). 

In  Contemp.  i  =279,  Professor  Dowden  discusses  French  Aes- 
thetics, dealing  with  Cousin,  Jouffroy,  Lamennais,  and  Leveque. 
Jouffroy's  importance  is  perhaps  over-emphasized.  An  inter- 
esting article  by  Professor  Eaton  on  Modern  French  Aesthet- 
ics, containing  notices  of  Leveque,  Chaignet,  and  others,  ap- 
peared in  the  New  Englander,  49:  246.  In  the  same  line  is  an 
exhaustive  review  of  Leveque's  La  Science  du  Beau,  from  the 
pen  of  E.  Saisset,  in  the  Rev.  d.  D.  Monties,  15  Nov.,  1861,  re- 
printed in  the  latter's  L'Ame  et  la  Vie,  p.  91.  On  Taine,  see 
the  references  given  in  §  8.  For  the  place  of  the  Cartesian 

i  The  article  contains  considerable  translation,  including  a  passage  from  Hegel's 
Aesthetik,  which  has  since  been  frequently  quoted  :  "  Metre  is  the  first  and  only  con- 
dition absolutely  demanded  by  poetry,  etc."  See  the  article  '  Poetry,'  by  Th.  Watts, 
in  Encyc.  Brit.,  gth  ed.,  and  Gummere's  Poetics,  Introduction.  That  this  quotation 
does  not  accurately  represent  Hegel's  thought  will  be  apparent  from  a  reading  of  the 
Aesthetik  (vol.  Ill,  280  et  scg.,  especially  pp.  227  and  289). 


§9, //.],    INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  135 

philosophy  in  the  history  of  aesthetics,  the  reader  may  consult 
Schasler's  Geschichte,  vol.  I,  pp.  280,  283,  and  Krantz's  Essai 
sur  1'esthetique  de  Descartes. 

On  the  aesthetics  of  Pascal  consult  the  article  by  Bertrand  in 
La  critique  Philosophique,  1886-!:  228-234;  on  the  aesthetics 
of  Boileau,  the  article  by  Brunetiere  in  the  Rev,  d.  D.  Mondes, 
1889-111 :  662-685. 

//.  Investigation  of  Special  Problems.  —  A  few  references 
bearing  directly  upon  leading  problems  will  perhaps  be  of 
service  to  the  student  who  is  specializing  in  this  field. 

A.  THE  BEAUTIFUL.  —  As  every  writer  on  aesthetics  has  some- 
thing to  say  on  this  head,  no  general  references  need  be  given. 
Blackie's  On  Beauty  (Edinburgh  :  1858)  is  directed  against  the 
views  of  Alison.  A  great  part  of  the  work  is  taken  up  by  an 
exposition  of  the  Beautiful  according  to  Plato.  Professor 
Blackie  also  contributed  an  article  on  the  Philosophy  of  the 
Beautiful  to  the  Contemp.  43:  814.  Die  Idee  des  Schonen  in 
der  Platonischen  Philosophic  is  the  title  of  the  first  volume  of 
Strater's  Studien  zur  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik  (Bonn  :  1861). 
On  the  Kantian  conception  of  beauty,  see  Nicolai's  1st  der 
Begriff  des  Schonen  bei  Kant  consequent  entwickelt  ?  (Kiel : 
1889),  and  Blencke's  Die  Trennung  d.  Schonen  vom  Angeneh- 
men  in  Kant's  Kr.  d.  Urtheilskraft  (Leipzig:  1888).  Byk's 
Physiologic  des  Schonen  (Leipzig:  1878)  will  be  found  useful 
to  compare  with  Grant  Allen's  method  of  treatment  of  the  same 
subject.  Those  who  are  interested  in  this  phase  of  aesthetics 
should  not  overlook  the  paragraphs  on  the  Acquisition  of 
Beauty  in  Darwin's  Origin  of  Species  (paragraphs  302-304, 
792),  and  on  Ideas  of  Beauty,  in  Descent  of  Man  (2d  ed., 
pp.  92,  410-414,  54°,  S4i,  573-585>  595'  596)-  A  considera- 
tion of  the  Beautiful  from  a  speculative  point  of  view  will  be 
found  in  77.  Spec.  Philos.  17  :  94  in  an  article  by  W.  H.  Kimball. 
Kostlin's  Ueber  d.  Schonheitsbegriff  will  repay  perusal.  For 


136  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  II. 

the  psychological  aspects  of  the  question  see  Dimetresco's  Der 
Schonheitsbegriff  (Leipzig:  1877). 

B.  THE  UGLY.  —  Die  Aesthetik  des  Hasslichen,  by  K.  Rosen- 
kranz  (Konigsberg :  1853),  is  the  most  comprehensive  work  on 
this  subject.     Von   Hartmann  reviews  recent  theories  of  the 
Ugly,  devoting  also  considerable  space  to  it  in  his  systematic 
aesthetics.     See  indexes  to  vols.  I  and  II,  under  hassliche.     A 
brief  account  of  German  theories  will  be  found  in  Lotze's  Ge- 
schichte,  pp.  333-342.     By  far  the  ablest  single  article  on  the 
Ugly  is  Mr.  Bernard  Bosanquet's  paper,  The  Aesthetic  The- 
ory of  Ugliness,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Aristotelian  Society,  No.  3, 
pt.  I.     A  full  discussion  of  the  subject  will  be  found  in  the 
same   writer's    History  of   Aesthetic,  and   may  be  traced  by 
means  of  the  index.     Other  authorities  who  have  treated  it  at 
length  are  F.  Schlegel,  Solger,  Weisse,  Ruge,  Von  Kirchmann, 
Schasler,  and  Carriere. 

C.  THE  SUBLIME.  —  A  short  list  of  those  who  have  written 
upon  the  sublime,  with  a  rapid  sketch  of  the  opinions  of  each, 
will  be^  found  in  the  supplement  to  Kedney's  The  Beautiful  and 
the  Sublime  (New  York  :  1880).     Arthur  Seidl's  Zur  Geschichte 
des  Erhabenheitsbegriffes  seit  Kant  (1889)  considers  with  some 
fullness  Kant  and  his  predecessors  (pp.  1-15),  and  with  ex- 
haustiveness  the  writers  with  whom  it  is  especially  concerned. 
The  list  of  books  (pp.  vii-x)  that  the  author  has  not  been  able 
to  consult  is  rather  formidable.     A  summary  of  Seidl's  conclu- 
sions will  be  found  in  the  article  by  Professor  Everett  in  An- 
dover  Review,  August,  1890,  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Sublime. 
See,    also,    index   to  vol.    II    of  Von    Hartmann's  Aesthetik, 
under  Erhabene,  Bosanquet's  History  under  Longinus,   Burke, 
Winckelmann,   Kant,   Hegel ;    Lemcke's   Populare  Aesthetik, 
p.   94,  Vischer's  Aesthetik,  i  :    218-333   (see  index  to   vol.  V 
under    Erhabenheit),  J.    Walter's  Geschichte  d.  Aesthetik  im 
Altertum   (Leipzig:   1893),  pp.   86-95,   836-851,   and  Lotze's 


D-E.}       INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  137'. 

Geschichte,  pp.  324-333.  A  fragment  of  Kant's  writings  on 
the  Sublime  has  been  translated  by  De  Quincey  (Works, 
Masson's  ed.  14:  46),  and  Hegel's  chapter,  Die  Symbolik  der 
Erhabenheit  (Aesth.,  vol.  I,  p.  454),  by  Stirling  (Macm.  16  :  44 
Symbolism  of  the  Sublime).  With  the  second,  cf.  Hegel's 
Aesth.,  vol.  I,  p.  427  et  seq.  The  Origin  of  the  Sublime  is  the 
title  of  an  article  by  Grant  Allen  in  Mind,  3  :  324.  See,  also,  the 
treatise  by  Blencke,  cited  in  the  references  on  the  Beautiful. 

D.  THE  PATHETIC.  — The  modern  phases  of  the  pathetic  have 
not  been  fully  investigated.     Schiller's  essay  on  Pathos  deals 
mainly  with  the  Greek  conception.     Von  Hartmann  gives  but 
two  pages  to  Das  Pathetische  (vol.  II,  pp.  313,  314),  but  the 
entire   chapter  should  be  read,  especially  the  paragraphs  on 
Das    Riihrende,    Das    Traurige,    Das    Elegische    oder    Weh- 
miithige,  etc.     See  also  the  works  of  Lemcke  and  Vischer. 

E.  THE  COMIC.  —  Only  a  few  references  will  be  given  here, 
since  the  subject  in  its  whole  extent  is  to  be  considered  under 
comedy. 

Hobbes's  often-discussed  definition  of  laughter  may  be  found 
in  his  English  works  (London  :  1839-45),  vol.  Ill,  pp.  45-47 
(see,  also,  vol.  IV,  pp.  46,  455).  For  other  important  theoriz- 
ings  on  the  subject,  see  Spencer's  Physiology  of  Laughter, 
Darwin's  Expression  of  the  Emotions  (London  :  1870),  Hecker's 
Physiol.  u.  Psychol.  des  Lachens,  L.  Dumont's  Des  Causes  du 
Rire  (Paris :  1862),  Professor  Butcher's  article  on  the  Evolution 
of  Humor,  in  Harper,  80  :  898,  Marshall's  Pain,  Pleasure,  and 
Aesthetics,  p.  329,  J.  Dewey  in  Psychol.  Rev.  i  :  558-560.  A 
recent  work  is  Masci's  Psicologia  del  Comico  (Naples  :  1889). 
For  a  review  of  German  theories  see  Lotze's  Geschichte,  pp. 
342-352,  Von  Hartmann's  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  index,  under 
Anthropologischer.  A  rather  full  bibliography  of  the  subject 
will  be  found  in  Regnard's  OEuvres  Completes  (Paris  :  1860). 

On  the  Tragic,  see  §§  37-48  below. 


138  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

F.  GENIUS.  —  On  the  nature  of  genius  the  student  may  con- 
sult the   following :    E.  Caro,   Melanges  et  Portraits   (2    vols. 
Paris  :  1888),  vol.  I,  p.  299  (on  Seailles);  G.  Seailles,  Essai  sur 
le  genie  dans  1'art  (Paris:  1884);  C.  Lombroso,  The  Man  of 
Genius,    with    illustrations    (London:    1891);     Max    Nordau, 
Entartung  (2  vols.   Berlin:  1893;  tr.  Degeneration,  N.  Y.:  1895), 
Paradoxes  (Engl.  tr.  Chicago  :  1886)  ;    R.  Falckenberg,  Nord 
u.  Stiff,  56  :  376  Kunstler  und  Mensch   (Discusses  the  subject 
under  three  heads:   i.  What  are  the  characteristics  distinguish- 
ing  the    productive  from    the    non-productive  man  ?    2.  How 
does  artistic  practice  react  on  the  artist?     3.  What  relation 
is  there   between   the    characteristics    of    the    work    and    the 
characteristics  of  the  artist?);    C.  Spitteler,   Kunstwart,  1891: 
113  Fleiss  und  Eingebung  :  Zur  Psychologic  des  clichterischen 
Schaffens ;   Karl  Bleibtreu,  Letze  Wahrheiten  (Leipzig:  1891), 
pp.    1-98     Die    naturwissenschaftliche    Anschauung    und   das 
Genie,  99-142   Das  Genie  an  sich,  143-189  Genie,  Wahnsinn 
und  Strafgesetz  ;   O.  Panizza,  Genie  und  Wahnsinn  (Miinchen : 
1891.     Miinch.  Flugschriften,    i.   ser.   5-6);    Ferd.   Brunetiere, 
Histoire  et  litterature  (3   vols.     Paris:  1884-6),  vol.  I,  p.  353 
Le  Genie  dans  1'art  (on   Se'ailles);   F.  Spielhagen,  Produktion, 
Kritik  und  Publikum  (Berlin:  1891.     Thinks  genius  and  work 
come  to  the  same  thing);  Grant  Allen,  Falling  in  Love,  with 
other  essays  on  more  exact  Branches  of  Science  (London  :  1889), 
p.  328  The  Recipe  for  Genius  ;  G.  H.  Lewes,  Principles  of  Suc- 
cess in  Literature  (2d  ed.     Boston  :  1892.     See  index  under 
'Genius');  F.  Gallon,  Hereditary  Genius  (New  York:  1877); 
Wm.  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (see  index). 

Lombroso,  Gallon,  and  Se'ailles  are  foremost  authorities. 
The  remarks  in  James's  Psychology  though  brief  are  extremely 
good.  For  a  popular  and  yet  accurate  characterization  of 
genius,  consult  Lewes's  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature. 

G.  RHYTHM. —  On  this  fundamental  question  the  student  may 
consult  the  able  study  by  T.  L.  Bolton  in  the  American  Jl.  of 


G-H.1        INVESTIGA  TION  OF  SPECIAL  PROBLEMS.  139 

Psychol.  6  :  145-238,  in  which  he  will  find  a  fairly  complete 
bibliography  of  the  subject.  Of  especial  interest  among  recent 
investigations  is  E.  Meumann's  Untersuchungen  zur  Psycho- 
logic und  Aesthetik  des  Rhythmus,  in  Wundt's  Philos.  Studien 
x.  pp.  249-322,  393-430.  See  also  §§  22,  A,  and  24,  C,  below. 

H.  THE  RELATION  OF  ART  TO  NATURE.  —  For  advanced 
students  pursuing  independent  research  a  number  of  references 
bearing  upon  this  fundamental  question  are  here  brought 
together. 

The  relation  of  art  to  nature  has  given  rise  to  a  metaphysical 
discussion  ranging  all  the  way  from  the  theory  of  imitation  to 
that  of  symbolism. 

I)  Among  the  Ancients. 

Beginning  with  Plato's  diagnosis  of  the  fine  arts  as  servile 
imitations  and  thrice  removed  from  the  truth,  the  speculative 
criticism  of  the  ancients  may  be  traced  through  a  series  of 
conceptions,  such  as  Aristotle's  theory  of  representation 
(selective  or  idealizing  imitation),  the  theory  of  fantastic  sym- 
bolism, the  theory  of  mental  imitation  (which  uses  penetrative 
and  creative  imagination),  and  finally  the  theory  of  adequate 
symbolism  of  Plotinus,  which,  though  based  upon  and  read  out 
of  Plato's  philosophy  of  ideas,  practically  destroyed  the  Platonic 
doctrine  of  imitative  naturalism. 

The  imitative  naturalism  of  Plato  and  the  Aristotelian  theory 
of  representation  call  for  serious  examination.  They  are  the 
historical  keys  to  the  situation.  In  what  follows  will  be  found 
topical  references  to  these  authors  which  may  be  useful  in  first- 
hand investigation. 

A)  PJ aid's  Theory  of  Art  as  related  to  Nature: 

i)  The  ideal,  the  phenomenal ;  creation  and  imitation. 

a)  The  ideal  and  the  phenomenal : 

Repub.  472-477  ;  485  Lovers  of  knowledge,  and  lovers  of 
sights  and  sounds  ;  the  real  beauty  compared  with  its  copy  ; 
509—510,  511,  514—517  the  good  the  prime  cause,  things  on 


140  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  II. 

which  it  shines  are  visible  and  knowable,  phenomena  a  stepping- 
stone  to  the  vision  of  the  ideal  good  ;  the  figure  of  the  cave. 

£)  Relation  of  the  good,  the  true,  the  beautiful  to  the  ideal, 
and  to  each  other  : 

Repub.  509-511,514-517  ;  534.  Phaedrus  238-258  ;  261-279. 
Philebus  22-63. 

c)  Creation : 

Sophist,  264-267  :  Divine  creations  are  (i)  of  divine  things, 
(2)  of  shadows ;  human  creations  are  (i)  of  production  for  use, 
(2)  of  images  of  things.  Images  are  either  likenesses  or  phan- 
tasies. Symposium  196—206  Love  as  a  creator,  a  maker  of 
poets,  an  intermediary  between  the  divine  and  the  human.  All 
passage  of  not-being  into  being  is  poetry  or  making ;  the 
processes  of  all  art  are  creative;  210  The  grades  of  beauty 
which  the  poet  may  see  and  reveal.  Timaeus  28  The  world 
created  by  God  after  the  eternal  pattern.  Kind  of  making  : 
Repub.  597  Three  kinds:  (i)  the  creation  of  the  divine  image, 
(2)  the  creation  of  the  visible  likeness,  (3)  the  imitation  of 
that  likeness. 

d}  Imitation  : 

Repub.  393—397  ;  595-607  Imitations  three  removes  from 
the  truth  ;  indiscriminate,  hypocritical,  futile,  ignorant,  incon- 
sistent, provocative  of  irrational  excess.  Laws  669-674  How 
to  judge  of  imitations  ;  889  Art  produces  in  play  imperfect  imita- 
tions of  natural  phenomena  (works  of  fine  art)  and,  in  earnest, 
worthy  results  equal  to  those  of  nature  (such  as  the  craft  of  the 
statesman).  Sophist  219  Imitation  as  a  productive  or  creative 
art ;  235-237  Comparison  between  imitation  as  practiced  by  the 
sophist  and  by  the  painter ;  264-267  Imitation  a  form  of  creation. 
Timaeus  19  The  poets  disgrace  their  calling  when  they  imitate 
merely  the  superficial  aspect  of  life.  Cratylus  423  Music  and 
painting  imitate  color  and  sound ;  words  imitate  the  essence  of 
things.  Two  kinds  of  imitation  :  Sophist  235-237  Copying  and 
fantastic  production  ;  the  former  makes  an  image,  the  latter  an 


ff.}  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  141 

appearance  ;  264-267  The  place  of  imitation  among  forms  of 
creation  ;  further  discussion  of  likenesses  and  phantasies. 
Knowledge  required  of  the  imitator  :  Repub.  402,602.  Phaedrus 
261-279  Poets,  orators,  and  legislators  must  understand  the 
soul  and  how  it  is  affected  ;  i.e.,  they  should  be  philosophers. 
Theaetetus :  Sense  apprehends  only  the  phenomenal,  the 
fleeting ;  reason  grasps  the  real  and  permanent. 

2)  Art : 

a]  Art  cooperates  with  nature  and  chance  to  fulfill  the  divine 
purpose:  Laws -709,  889. 

b]  Connotation  of  Art : 

Repub.  342  The  word  is  generally  used  as  including  both 
useful  and  fine  art. 

c]  Kinds  of  art  (in  a  general  sense) : 

Repub.  602  There  are  three  arts :  (i)  that  of  use,  (2)  that  of 
making  instruments  for  use,  (3)  that  of  imitating  these.  States- 
man 279—286  All  arts  either  causal  or  cooperative;  the  latter 
used  by  the  painter. 

3)  The  metaphysical  aspect  of  the  Relation  of  Art  to 
Nature  : 

a)  The  principle  of  unity  in  variety : 

Phaedrus  261-269  ^n  rhetoric  as  a  prerequisite  to  poetry  and 
oratory. 

b}  Art  as  a  medium  of  ideas : 

Statesman  277  The  higher  ideas  seem  to  require  examples  as 
a  medium  of  expression ;  especially  for  the  enlightenment  of 
dull  persons  ;  286  The  highest  truths  cannot  thus  be  adequately 
expressed.  (See  also  above  the  references  on  Creation  and 
Imitation.) 

4)  Other  aspects  of  the  Relation  of  Art  to  Nature  which 
throw  light  on  the  metaphysical  discussion  : 

a)  The  psychological : 

Repub.  511.  Sophist  264—267  Imagination  is  opinion  ex- 
pressed under  the  forms  of  sense.  Phaedrus  238-258  The 


142  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,77. 

contrast  between  opinion,  which  leads  to  the  best,  and  desire, 
which  devoid  of  reason  leads  to  the  excessive.  The  four  kinds 
of  madness  :  prophecy,  inspiration,  poetry,  love.  The  love  that 
springs  from  the  contemplation  of  beauty  as  expressed  in  sen- 
sible form. 

b)  The  aesthetic  : 

(1)  Art  and  the  love  of  beauty : 

Repub.  403.  Phaedrus  238-258  Love,  a  form  of  madness. 
Its  highest  enjoyment  is  in  the  temperate  contemplation  of 
beauty.  "  Symposium  177,  196-205,  210  Love  is  a  poet,  a  master 
of  poets,  an  artist,  and  a  creator  of  order.  The  truly  initiated 
lover  rises  to  the  vision  of  the  eternal  reality,  of  which  he  may 
reveal  the  beauty  to  the  eye  of  the  mind. 

(2)  The  disinterestedness  of  art : 
Repub.  342,  346. 

(3)  The  pleasure  proper  to  art : 

Repub.  581,  582  ;  Laws  652-669  Pleasure  not  a  criterion  of 
excellence;  but  an  attendant;  700,  701.  Statesman  279-289 
In  art  the  fitting  does  not  primarily  produce  pleasure.  Gorgias 
500-513  Pleasure  should  be  sought  for  the  good,  and  not  good 
for  the  sake  of  pleasure.  The  arts  that  minister  to  pleasure 
only  are  flattering  and  false.  Philebus,  22,  27,  31,  32,  42,  51-54, 
56,  63  The  relation  of  pleasure  and  pain  to  knowledge,  and  the 
cause  of  all  these  ;  pure  and  impure  pleasures.  The  good  a 
union  of  pure  pleasures  and  knowledge,  of  which  the  virtue  lies 
in  beauty,  symmetry,  and  truth.  Pure  pleasure  is  one  of  the 
five  good  things.  Symposium  64,  87-89  The  interrelation  of 
pain  and  pleasure.  Order  and  harmony  preventives  of  disease  ; 
and  motion  productive  of  harmony.  Gymnastics  as  a  means  of 
purification. 

(4)  The  aesthetic  judgment  : 

Laws  652-667  The  worth  of  melodies  does  not  depend 
upon  the  pleasure  they  produce ;  669  Three  elements  in  an 
aesthetic  judgment, —  to  know  that  which  is  imitated,  whether 


J7.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  143 

the  imitation  is  correct,  whether  the  form  is  beautiful  or  well 
executed;  700,  701  The  vicious  criterion  of  pleasure  intro- 
duced by  the  poets.  Statesman  279-286  Two  kinds  of 
measurement  of  value,  —  quantitative  and  qualitative.  The 
qualitative  demands  a  fixed  standard :  the  good,  which  is  the 
mean,  any  deviation  wherefrom  is  bad.  Qualitative  arts  judge 
not  of  mathematical  or  dynamical  conceptions  but  of  the 
fitting,  the  opportune  and  the  due.  Artistic  pleasure  may 
attend  the  fitting;  but  does  not  primarily  spring  from  it. 
Repub.  581,  582  The  philosopher  only  is  competent  to  judge 
of  pleasure,  whether  it  be  noble  or  ignoble. 

c]  The  moralistic  : 

1 i )  The  immorality  of  certain  forms  of  art  : 

Repub.  364,  366,  377,  379-386  ;  568  Tragedians  to  be 
banished  from  the  Republic ;  607  Homer  must  be  expelled ; 
Laws  700-701. 

(2)  The  educative  value  of  certain  forms  of  art  : 
Repub.  397-411  ;   522,  531  ;   Laws  662-667  ;  670-674. 

(3)  The  relative  excellence  of  the  arts : 

Statesman  304  Statesmanship  dominates  the  lower  arts  : 
music,  rhetoric,  etc. 

(4)  The  relation  of  art  to  science: 

Statesman  259,  260  The  sciences  give  judgments  on  matters 
of  theory ;  the  arts  give  commands  on  matters  of  practice. 
5)  Poetry  and  Music: 

d)  Poetry  : 

Ion  532-540  The  poet  either  a  charlatan  or  divinely 
inspired.  Phaedrus  238-258  Prophecy,  inspiration,  poetry,  and 
love  as  forms  of  madness.  261-269  Poetry  depends  upon  the 
principle  of  unity  in  variety  ;  270-279  When  the  poet  rests 
upon  truth  he  is  a  philosopher.  Symposium  177-210  It  is 
love  that  makes  the  poet,  the  object  of  love  is  birth  in  beauty, 
hence  immortality.  The  truly  initiated  lover  is  the  ideal  poet. 
Timaeus  19  The  poets  capable  of  doing  better  if  they  were  not 


144  LITER AR  Y  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

a  tribe  of  imitators.  Protagoras  339  d  seq.  The  poets  and 
their  interpreters  ridiculed.  Lysis  204  The  poets  called 
fathers  and  authors  of  wisdom.  Apology  22  The  poets  write 
not  by  wisdom,  but  by  genius  and  inspiration.  Repub.  393 
Kinds  of  poetry. 

//)  The  theory  and  function  of  music  : 

Repub.  397;  400-403;  409-411;  424;  442;  452;  531. 
Statesman  304.  Philebus  27,  31,  32,  41,  51-53,  56.  Cra- 
tylus  423.  Laws  657-669;  670-674;  700,701.  Symposium 
205.  Timaeus  47,  87—89. 

Of  authorities  on  Plato's  Theory  of  Imitation,  the  best  are 
Ed.  Miiller,  Gesch.  d.  Theorie  d.  Kunst  bei  den  Alten, — minute, 
exhaustive,  and  critically  sound,  save  that  it  defers  the  treat- 
ment of  Plato's  idea  of  Beauty  until  after  the  discussion  of  his 
philosophy  of  art;  Schasler  i:  89-97;  134,  135;  2:  1159- 
1166,  1171,  of  historical  and  bibliographical  value;  Zellers 
Philosophic  der  Griechen,  in  its  historical  development,  —  the 
Platonic  philosophy  is  regarded  as  an  artistic  creation,  but  the 
treatment  of  the  theory  of  imitation  is  practical  and  broad- 
minded  ;  Zimmermann's  Geschichte  d.  Aesthetik,  —  follow- 
ing close  in  the  wake  of  Miiller;  A.  Ruge's  Platonische  Aes- 
thetik, —  furnishing  ample  material  in  the  way  of  reference 
to  the  originals,  but  lacking  interpretative  insight;  Egger  144— 
148,  admirably  clear  ;  Bosanquet,  Hist.  Aesth.,  43-55  ;  Butcher's 
Greek  Genius,  257-260,  and  287-290,  and  corresponding  chap- 
ters in  his  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art;  Walter 
Pater,  Plato  and  Platonism,  Chap.  4  Plato's  Aesthetics.  Writ- 
ten with  his  usual  subtlety  is  the  Pulchri  Artis  notione,  pt.  I 
(apud  Platonem,  Aristotelem  et  Plotinum.  Diss.  1850)  of  Prof. 
R.  Haym.  This  dissertation  is  one  of  the  best  comparative 
treatments  of  the  fundamental  aesthetics  of  the  three  philoso- 
phers. See  also  Ritter's  Analyse  u.  Kritik  d.  von  Plato  in 
seiner  Schrift  vom  Staate  aufgestellten  Erziehungslehre  (Prog. 
1881) ;  and  LeVeque,  Justi,  Reber,  Remy,  Raabe  as  given  above, 
authorities  on  Greek  Aesthetics. 


H.-\  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  145 

B}  The  Aristotelian  Theory  by  References  to  the  Works  of 
Aristotle : 

In  the  Poetics  of  Aristotle  no  words  are  more  liable  to  mis- 
interpretation than  /At/ATfo-is  (imitation),  the  correlative  parts  of 
speech  (ju.i/u.£U7&u,  etc.),  and  the  words  and  phrases  more  or  less 
nearly  synonymous  with  these.  The  student  should  collate  all 
passages  in  which  such  words  occur,  with  a  view  to  determining 
what  Aristotle  meant  by  /XI/XTJO-IS  in  respect  of  the  material  used 
by  the  artist,  the  form  inspiring  him,  the  purpose  inciting,  and 
the  result  produced ;  what  he  meant  by  the  Nature  that  art 
imitates,  whether  imitation  of  a  real  thing  or  of  an  ideal,  —  and 
whether  imitation  implies  truth  to  nature  as  an  object  or  as  a 
process  ;  whether  Aristotle  was  what  some  would  now  call  a 
'realist,'  —  what  distinction  he  would  make  or  does  make 
between  copying,  representation,  and  imaginative  creation  or 
idealization,  to  what  extent  the  theories  of  selection,  illusion, 
.and  suggestion  are  involved,  whether  the  work  of  art  may  sur- 
pass nature  ;  what  he  considers  to  be  the  relative  values  of  his- 
torical fidelity  and  imaginative  probability,  what  aesthetic  worth 
he  might,  for  instance,  have  attached  to  photography ;  what 
was  his  theory  of  the  impulse  to  imitation,  of  the  aesthetic  value 
of  the  beautiful,  the  wonderful,  the  sublime,  the  awful,  the 
horrible,  the  ugly,  the  loathsome  ;  what  are  the  respective  pecu- 
liarities of  imitation  by  lyrical  poetry,  by  drama,  by  epic,  etc., — 
by  music,  by  dancing,  and  the  plastic  arts.  Misconceptions  of 
Aristotle's  doctrine  frequently  arise  from  the  various  and  im- 
perfect nomenclature  of  translations  of  the  Poetics.  Twining, 
Pye,  Butcher,  and  Wharton  are  recommended  to  English 
readers  ;  but  scholarly  and  satisfactory  work  can  be  done  only 
with  the  "original.  Shades  of  signification  depend  upon  the 
context.  For  /nt'/x^cris  in  the  sense  of  copying  see  1:4;  3:2; 
(imitate  persons  acting  and  doing)  ;  4  :  1-5  (delineation},  —  and 
other  passages.  For  /u/xT/o-ts  as  representation  see  i :  5 ;  6  : 
2  ;  6:4;  6:6,  and  other  passages.  For  the  signification  of 


146  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

selective  and  imaginative  creation,  or  idealization  see  2  :  2  ;  4 : 
9  ;  5:  i  ;  9:  1-9;  15:  8,  and  other  passages. 

Before  attempting  to  formulate  the  Aristotelian  theory  of 
'imitation'  and  to  compare  it  with  the  aesthetic  theories  of 
Plato  and  Plotinus  among  the  ancients,  or  of  Bacon,  Words- 
worth, Hegel,  Goethe,  Arnold,  Austin,  Ruskin,  and  others 
among  the  moderns,  the  meaning  and  bearing  of  the  words 
nature,  art,  imitation,  etc.,  in  the  Aristotelian  writings  other 
than  the  Poetics  should  be  ascertained.  Many  popular  and 
ordinarily  respected  expositions  of  the  theory  in  question  are 
worthless  because  the  originators  of  them  were  ignorant  of 
the  connection  between  Aristotle's  Poetics  and  his  general 
philosophical  system. 

The  following  topical  references,  though  by  no  means  in- 
tended to  be  exhaustive,  may  be  of  assistance. 

1.  Nature. 

TJ  <|>v<ris :  Nature  is  opposed  to  accidental  spontaneity  (rd  O.VT/>IMTOV) 
and  chance  (17  rvxrj).  As  self-producing  and  self-determined  it  is  opposed 
to  art,  in  that  while  art  is  an  originating  principle  in  something  outside 
itself,  nature  is  so  within  itself.  [Wallace,  Outlines  of  the  Philos.  of 
Aristotle,  pp.  34,  35.]  Consult  Phys.  2:1,  192^14;  2:2,  194*28;  2:8, 
1991*15;  2:1,  193328;  Meta.  11:3,  1070^6;  4:4,  ioi5a7;  Polit.  i:  i,  1252^ 
30;  De  Coel.  3  :  2,  3Oib  17. 

i]  0tf<m  is  a  continuous  development  from  plants  to  animals,  through 
animals  to  man,  De  Part.  Anim.  4  :  5,  68i»  12.  It  must  never  be  mistaken 
for  the  appearance,  or  face,  of  the  visible  universe. 

il  0t/<rts  works  always  toward  an  end,  De  Coel.  1:4,  271333,  and  makes 
the  best  of  her  material,  De  Coel.  288*  2;  De  Part.  Anim.  4  no,  687*  15; 
Phys.  2:8,  199^31.  In  some  of  her  works  she  excels  the  possibilities  of 
art,  De  Part.  Anim.  I  :  I,  639b  19  ;  — 

but  she  is  sometimes  baulked  of  her  intent,  matter  (vXij)  overcoming 
her,  Gen.  Anim.  4  :  4,  77Ob  16  ;  Phys.  2  :  9,  200*  14, — 

and  she  sometimes  makes  mistakes,  Phys.  2  : 8,  199*  33. 

2.  Art,  in  general. 

Phys.   2  :8  199^  15,  8Xw$  rt  rj  r^xvrl  T<*  f^v  ^riTeXet  a  rj  Qfois 
dir(py<iffaff0ai,  TO.  5£  /MUflrat.     In  general,  art  on  the  one  hand  ann- 


//.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  147 

pletes  what  nature  is  unable  to  carry  through,  on  the  other  hand  it  imitates. 
According  to  Butcher  (Aristot.  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art),  the 
distinction  is  not  between  useful  and  fine  art,  but  between  two  aspects 
of  useful  art.  On  the  one  hand  useful  art  satisfies  those  needs  of  man 
for  which  nature  has  not  fully  provided,  on  the  other  hand  its  processes 
are  those  of  nature.  It  imitates  TTJP  <j>vcriv  (the  productive  principle).  If 
the  two  clauses  do  not  "  respectively  mark  the  end  and  the  method  of 
useful  art,"  they  may  indicate  two  methods  by  which  art  (in  general) 
realizes  the  idea  of  nature  (i)  by  assisting  natural  processes,  (2)  by 
imitating  them.  Compare,  for  instance,  Meteorol.  4:3,38^6.  The 
process  of  cooking  is  similar  to  the  physical  process  of  digestion  :  "OTTTTjens 
titv  oiiv  Kal  tyi)<ru  yivovrat  /j£v  r^x"?7.  &"ri  5',  uvirep  Myofjuev,  ra  ctdi) 
xaOoXov  ravra  /cat  0tf<ret  •  O/JLOIO.  yap  rd  yivb^va.  7rd0ij,  d\\'  dvwvvfjLa  • 
/j.i/j.eiTai  yap  i)  T^XVT?  T$)V  <j)tiffiv.  ^Trei  Kai  i]  TT;S  Tpofpijs  tv  r<p  trufjMT 
ir^is  bfjLoia  e^<rei  fffrlv.  .  .  .  Here  not  only  is  Nature  to  be  explained  as 
the  process  of  nature,  but  Art  is  to  be  construed  as  useful  art  —  though 
not  assisting  nature  in  her  processes,  but  imitating  her  processes  for  the 
material  benefit  of  man. 

Art  and  education  supply  the  deficiencies  of  nature,  Pol.  7:17,  I337a; 
Art  assists  natural  processes,  Met.  6:7,  io32b6,  by  the  skill  of  the  physi- 
cian ;  it  imitates  the  order  of  nature  and  realizes  her  ends  in  the  useful  art 
of  the  politician,  Pol.  1:2,  1253*3,  and  in  the  fine  arts  of  painting,  music, 
poetry,  etc.,  De  Mundo  5:396^12,  Poet.  1:4;  4:2-6;  6:9-18. 

According  to  Eth.  Nic.  6:4,  1140*  10,  ravrbv  S,v  efij  r^x"?!  xal  ?£ts  pera 
\6yov  d\?7(?oDs  iroirjTiKri,  —  art  is  a  faculty  which  realizes,  or  produces,  in 
accordance  with  a  true  idea  ;  and  according  to  Meta.  i:  i,  981*  5  and  6, 
art  conies  into  being  when  out  of  many  conceptions  of  experience  one 
universal  opinion  is  evolved  with  respect  to  similar  cases.  .  .  .  Experience 
is  a  knowledge  of  particulars,  art  of  universals.  See  also  Rhet.  i:  2,  1356^ 
29 ;  Meta.  6 :  7,  10323  32  dtrb  rtynp  dt  yiyverat,  K.T.\.  From  art  are  born 
those  things  the  forms  of  which  are  in  the  soul  (8ffwi>  rb  e?5os).  For 
explanation  of  eiSos,  or  form,  in  this  context  see  Meta.  6 : 7,  10321)15; 
Meta.  6  :  9,  1034*  24  —  "  For  art  is  form,"  etc. 

3.    Imitation. 

a)  In  general. 

(iifieicrGai :  Poetics  4:1  "  It  is  innate  in  men  from  childhood  (i)  to  imitate 
(fjunetaOai) :  —  in  this  we  differ  from  the  other  animals  because  we  are  the 
most  imitative  and  acquire  our  first  knowledge  through  imitation,  — and  (2) 
to  delight  in  imitations."  Note  that  here  man  shares  the  imitative  faculty 
with  other  animals,  but  excels  them  (a)  in  imitative  excellence,  and  (b)  in 


148  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,  //. 

the  ability  to  reason  from  his  attempts  at  imitation.  The  original  imitative 
effort  is  evidently  not  directed  toward  the  production  of  images  of  natural 
objects ;  but  toward  the  furtherance  of  nature's  purposes  and  the  satisfac- 
tion of  man's  desires  —  by  the  methods  of  nature. 

For  imitation  among  the  lower  animals,  see  De  Animalibus  Historia 
8  : 12,  597.  Instances  of  the  imitation  of  natural  processes  by  art  are  cited 
from  Aristotle  by  Db'ring  (Die  Kunstlehre  d.  Aristoteles)  49-62,  80-83, 
143-188. 

Other  examples  of  the  general  use  of  the  words  imitate,  imitation,  etc., 
are  as  follows  :  Rhetorica  ad  Alexandrum  I  :  13,  14223  30,  rbv  avrbv  Tpbirov 
7rpoo"^/cei  Toys  vleis  fjufjieiffOai  ras  rCtv  irar^p^v  Trpdfets.  So  a/so  it  is  fitting  that 
sons  should  imitate  the  deeds  of  their  fathers.  Meteorol.  1 : 9,  34&b  36 
ylverat  Se  /cuxXos  oiiros  /M/j,ovfj.evos  rbv  rou  i)\iov  K<JK\OV.  Eth.  Nic.  9:11  Not 
inferior  but  superior  natures  must  be  imitated ;  Kth.  Nic.  3 : 5  Homer  as 
an  imitator  ;  Meta.  98;b  1 1  The  Pythagoreans  believed  that  things  subsist 
by  the  imitations  of  numbers.  Eth.  Nic.  3:5,  1113^8  Now  this  is  evident 
from  the  ancient  polities  which  Homer  depicted  (^fyteiro).  |upTHJ.a  :  Rhet. 
3:1,  14043  21  Names  are  the  imitations  (/zi/ttiJ/iaTa)  of  things.  Note  also  the 
place  of  the  voice  in  imitation, — Rhet.  ad  Alexandrian  29,  14363  7.  On  the 
imitation  of  ethical  qualities  in  practical  life,  see  Problemata  19  :  10,  95ia7> 
pLifjL-qTT|s  :  For  the  different  uses  of  imitator,  see  Problemata  19:15,  918^  28; 
Moral.  Magn.  i :  19,  1 190.  The  imitator  (painter)  is  not  praiseworthy  unless 
he  have  an  excellent  purpose  (Stv  ^  rbv  ffKoirbv  6%  TO.  KciXXiara  pi/jxtfft)a.i). 

l>)   In  particular. 

On  Aristotle's  conception  of  Imitation  as  involved  in  art,  especially  in 
the  fine  arts,  the  following  references  may  be  consulted  : 

|U|ir|TiKa(  :  Poetics  8  :  4  \pr)  o$i>,  KO.6a.irep  KO!  tv  rais  AXXais  JU/XTJTIKCUS  f) 
fila  fil/j.r)cri.s  fv6s  etrnv,  OVTU  nal  rbv  fj.G0ov,  fVet  7rpa£ews  /j.i/j.r)iris  fan,  /uas  re 
eJvai  rai^Tijs  /ecu  8X77$,  K.r.X.  As  in  other  mimetic  arts  one  imitation  is  of  one 
object,  so  the  plot  since  it  is  an  imitation  of  action  must  be  of  one  comflcte 
action.  See  also  De  Animalibus  Historia  8:12,  597. 

Synonyms  for  the  "imitative  arts"  (fu/j.r,TiKal  T^W)  are  given  by 
Butcher  as  /«/iti}<mj,  modes  of  imitation,  and  tXevOtpioi  r^yai,  liberal  arts. 

:  The  term  occurs  in  the  following  passages  :  Pol.  8  :  5  *Ert  S£ 
V  /junfocuv  "yi^vovro.1  ird»T€s  ffv/j.iraMs  KO.I  xuP^  T^v  P^O^Csv  Ka.1 
T&V  fte\dv  a.f>ru>v.  Besides,  when  men  listen  to  imitations  all  their  feelings 
are  aroused  in  sympathy  even  though  there  be  no  rhythm  or  melody.  Some 
commentators  supply  "of  the  feelings"  after  "imitations."  Poetics  r:2 
Epic  Poetry  and  Tragedy,  and  also  Comedy  and  the  Dithyramb  and  most 
flute  and  guitar  playing  are  all  of  them,  to  speak  generally,  imitations 
;  also,  Rhet.  i:ii,  I37ib,  painting  and  sculpture;  also,  Poet,  i  =5, 


//.]  INVESTIGATION   OF  SPECIAL    PROBLEMS.  149 

dancing.  Architecture  is  not  mentioned  in  the  list  of  fine  arts,  save  in  so 
far  as  it  is  adorned  by  sculpture.  Poet.  9 : 9  ficn^  TrotijTTjs  /card  rrjv  /jLlfjaja-lv 
ftrri,  /jufieiTai  5t  ras  irpdl-eis.  Since  the  poet  is  a  poet  (maker)  by  means  of  his 
imitation,  and  he  imitates  action. 

The  following  passages,  also,  throw  light  upon  the  connotation  of  the 
words  "imitative  arts."  Problemata  19:15,  9i8b  28,  On  the  skill  necessary 
to  imitation  in  music.  Note  especially  the  context  of  6  nlv  yap  inroKpiTrjs 
dywvurrris  /ecu  ytu/irjrijs,  6  8i  x°P^s  rjrrov  mnefrai.  Pol.  8  :  5  ti>  rots  nt\e<rii> 
aurots  fort  fj.ifjLrnj.ar  a  r&v  yQ&v,  /c.r.X.,  —  On  the  place  of  music  in  education, 
and  as  an  imitation  of  moral  qualities.  Music  has  a  greater  ethical  influence 
than  painting  or  sculpture,  which  do  not  produce  imitations  but  signs  of 
moral  habits;  whereas  in  mere  melodies  there  is  an  imitation  of  character, 
and  the  various  melodies  and  rhythms  have  .  .  .  various  ethical  effects. 
Pol.  8  :  6,  7.  Ethical  melodies  and  passionate  melodies.  The  former 
are  preferable  in  education,  but  the  latter  have  their  uses  in  affecting  and 
then  relieving  natures  prone  to  religious  frenzy,  pity,  fear,  enthusiasm,  and 
other  emotions,  in  excess.  These  chapters  8  :  5-8  are  valuable  also  for  the 
light  they  throw  on  the  tragic  catharsis,  Poetics  6. 

4.  Aristotle's  conception  of  artistic  '  imitation '  is  liberally  developed 
and  illustrated  by  his  use  of  parallel  words  such  as  6/j.oiu/j.a,  a  likeness ; 
ffrifneiov,  a  symbol  or  sign ;  ei'/cwi',  an  image ;  <pavraffla,  imagination  ;  <pdv- 
racr/ua,  a  mental  impression. 

6p.oiu>[ia :  De  Interp.  i.  TO,  aitra  iraO^fJMTa  rrjs  ^ux^s,  xal  uv  TO.VTO. 
6/ioiWjLiaTa,  irpdy/JiaTa  f/Sr)  ravra.  Polit.  8:5,  1340333  ffVfj.ft^i)Ke  5£  rdv 
v,  K.T.X.;  8  :  5,  1340*  18  In  rhythms  and  melodies  we  have  imitations 
)  of  anger  and  mildness,  etc.«  Also  8  :  5  Figures  and  colors  are 
not  likenesses  (6/j.oiw/j.ara)  but  signs  (a-r^eia)  of  moral  habits.  Probl.  19 :  27, 
9i9b26  S/ocws  «x6'  ^0°s»  ar»d  19:29,  92Oa  3  TO.  ^\TJ  tpuvT)  otoa  TJBeffiv  toiicev 
(fXei  dfwi6rrjTa)  the  ability  of  musical  sound  to  convey  likenesses  of  moral 
and  emotional  feelings.  Physiognom.  i  :  2,  806*28. 

o-T)|ieiov  or  o-vupoXov  :  De  Interp.  1:1,  1623;  2:16827;  Polit.  8  :  5. 

clKwv  :  Topics  6 :  2,  6  An  image  produced  by  imitation.  De  Part.  Anim. 
i :  5,  b  45,  a  5.  See  also  reference  to  the  De  Mem.  in  Teichmuller  2  : 149. 

<}>avTa.<ria  :  On  the  meaning  of  this  word  J.  Freudenthal  has  thrown  con- 
siderable-light in  a  compact  pamphlet  entitled  Ueber  den  Begriff  des  Wortes 
<pa.vra.tTla  bei  Aristoteles.  Diss.  1863. 

According  to  De  Anim.  3:3,  429*1,  phantasy,  or  imagination,  is  the 
movement  which  results  upon  an  actual  sensation  (Wallace,  Outlines,  p.  43). 
De  Anim.  3:3,  427b  17-20;  3:10,  433*10.  See  also  Rhet.  i:ii,  1370*28; 
De  Somno  1:459*17,  i:454b28,  i:458b25,  and  numerous  passages  in  the 
De  Insomn.  458-462,  and  the  De  Sensu.  Aristotle's  Psychology  (De 


ISO  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  // 

Anima),  Bk.  3,  chap.  3,  treats  in  detail  of  the  imagination.  This  chapter 
must  be  mastered  before  a  just  conception  of  Aristotle's  theory  of  imitation 
can  be  formed.  Wallace,  in  his  Introd.  to  the  Psychology,  sums  up  the 
materialistic  character  of  A.'s  conception  thus  :  "  The  pictures  which  imagi- 
nation, either  in  our  waking  moments  or  in  our  dreams,  presents  to  us  are 
simply  the  result  of  a  physiological  process,  in  which  the  movement  of  the 
organ  of  sensation  continues  the  impression  which  either  originally  excited 
it,  or  might  at  least  have  originally  done  so."  But  Professor  Wallace 
reminds  us  that  the  materialistic  aspects  of  the  process  do  not  exhaust 
Aristotle's  theory  of  image-making.  There  is  always  the  background  of 
the  ^t/x7?  as  the  reality  of  body. 

<t>dvTa(T(xa :  De  Anim.  3:7,431*14,  De  Memor.  449!^  31  The  pifturcs 
representative  of  external  objects  furnished  by  the  phantasy  form  the  mate- 
rials upon  which  reason  (rb  voetv)  (rrf  5£  StawijTt/cjj  ifsvxy)  works.  On  morbid 
excitement  of  the  senses  and  the  resulting  phantasms,  see  De  Insomn.  46ob 
25.  For  other  references,  see  Teichmuller  2  : 148. 

5.    General  considerations. 

a)  On  the  pleasure  produced  by  art,  for  artist  or  percipient,  and  on  the 
end  or  purpose  of  fine  art,  see  Butcher's  Aristotle's  Conception  of  Fine 
Art  and  Poetry  (Aspects  of  Greek  Genius,  pp.   253-289),  Doring,  Teich- 
muller and  Ed.    Muller.     The  discussion  bears  in   many  ways   upon   the 
theory  of  '  imitation.' 

b)  For  the  source  of  the  pleasure  derived  from  artistic  representation 
of  objects  (KO.I  rd  roidSt  dvdjKrj   ijdfa   eivai   olov   r6  re  ntfju^^vov,  wffirep 
•ypa0iK7j  KCU  dvdpiavToiroda  »cat  Troi-jT/Ki),  K.T.\.),  see  Rhet.  1:11,  137^6.   This 
passage  throws  light  upon   Poetics  4:5"  The  reason  that  we  delight  in 
seeing  likenesses  is  that  by  viewing  them  we  can  learn  and  conclude  what 
each  is,  e.g.,  that  '  this  is  so  and  so.'  "     On  the  pleasure  afforded  by  meta- 
phors, see  Rhet.  3  : 10,  2  ;  and  cf.  3  : 8,  2  ;  3  : 9,  2,  and  2  : 9.     Compare  also 
Probl.  30  :  6,  956*  14.     "Is  man  the  most  trustworthy  of  animals  because 
he  is  the  most  imitative,  and  hence  best  able  to  learn  ? "  and  19:5  where 
the  pleasure  produced  by  music  is  similarly  explained.     On  the  pleasure 
derived  from  the  imitation  even  of  disagreeable  objects,  see  De  Part.  Anim. 
1:5,  645,  as. 

c)  On  the  universal  element  in  art,  its  tendency  to   the   philosophic, 
Poet.  9:3,  see  Teichmuller    2:178,    and    Butcher's    Theory    of    Poetry. 
Teichmuller   and    Butcher   translate    the   passage   comparing   poetry  and 
history:  Poetry  is  more  philosophic  and  of  higher  worth  (<rirov5a.t6Tepov) 
than  history, —  for  it  approaches  nearer  to  the  universal  (/j.d\\ov  rd  naObXov) 
while  history  deals  with  particulars. 


ff.}  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  151 

d}  According  to  Teichmuller,  Forschungen  2:142-157,  the  fine  arts 
realize  the  ideal  of  nature  not  by  assisting  natural  processes,  or  imitating 
them  and  their  results  for  practical  purposes,  as  do  the  useful  arts,  nor  by 
producing  a  symbolic  representation  of  nature's  moods,  processes,  and  ends, 
but  by  completing  in  a  likeness  (freed  from  all  material  uncertainty)  forms 
which  shall  express  her  universal  meaning.  Butcher  in  this  respect  closely 
follows  Teichmuller. 


For  the  standard  texts  and  translations  of  the  Poetics,  Ethics, 
Metaphysics,  Politics,  Rhetoric,  Psychology,  and  other  works  of 
Aristotle  necessary  to  this  investigation  see  §  8  ARISTOTLE,  and 
the  Bibliography  appended  to  this  volume. 

Among  the  more  noteworthy  and  available  critiques  on  the 
Aristotelian  'Imitation'  may  be  mentioned  Carl  Altmiiller's  Der 
Zweck  der  schonen  Kunst,  a  painstaking  Aristotelian  study 
(Doctor's  dissertation  at  Jena  ;  Cassel  :  1873).  Ch.  Be'nard, 
L'Esthe'tique  d'Aristote  et  de  ses  Successeurs  (Paris  :  1889), 
gives  a  brief  resume  ;  theoretical  and  historical,  pp.  28-39,  53> 
145-151.  F.  Biese  (Die  Philosophic  des  Aristoteles,  Berlin  : 
1842)  in  his  chapter  on  Aristotle's  Aesthetics,  pp.  661—723, 
discusses  the  essential  relationship  of  the  arts  as  based  upon 
the  idea  of  imitation  (667  et  seg.~),  and  compares  Aristotle's 
theory  with  that  of  Plato.  Cf.  Plato,  Repub.  3,  394 c,  imitation 
in  poetry,  with  the  broader  connotation  and  denotation  of  /tu/tu/o-is 
in  the  Poetics.  Bosanquet's  treatment  (Hist.  Aesth.  Lond.: 
1892)  involves  a  catholic  view  of  the  Aristotelian  system  of 
thought.  Chapters  1-5  are  essential  to  the  discussion,  though 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  full  justice  is  done  to  the  idea  of 
/U'/ATJO-IS,  since  the  theory  which  construes  /xi/xijo-is  in  terms  of  a 
process  is  not  considered.  One  of  the  most  valuable  of  recent 
contributions  is  Prof.  S.  H.  Butcher's  treatise  in  Some  Aspects 
of  the  Greek  Genius  (Lond.:  1891),  pp.  234-394  Aristotle's 
Conception  of  Fine  Art  and  Poetry.  From  the  author's  synopsis 
of  the  chapters  on  Useful  Art  and  Fine  Art,  the  End  of  Art, 
the  Meaning  of  "  Imitation  "  as  an  Aesthetic  Term,  Poetry  as  an 


152  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

Imitation  or  Expression  of  the  Universal,  and  from  the  text  itself, 
may  be  gathered  the  outline  of  his  argument  :  "  The  saying 
4  Art  imitates  Nature  '  is  specially  applied  in  Aristotle  to  Useful 
Art,  which  follows  nature's  methods  and  supplies  her  defects. 
Fine  art  is  imitation  in  another  sense.  A  work  of  art  is  not 
a  servile  imitation  of  an  original  as  it  is  in  itself,  nor  a  sym- 
bolical representation  of  it,  but  a  copy  of  the  original  as  it  is 
presented  to  the  '  phantasy.'  Fine  Art,  in  poetry,  reproduces 
under  sensuous  form  the  universal  elements  in  human  life, .... 
is  an  idealized  image  of  character,  emotion,  action.  In  her 
structural  faculty  lies  nature's  perfection.  Useful  art,  employing 
nature's  own  machinery,  aids  her  in  her  effort  to  realize  the 
ideal  in  the  world  around  us,  so  far  as  man's  practical  needs 
are  served  by  furthering  this  purpose.  Fine  art  sets  practical 
needs  aside  ...  By  mere  imagery  it  reveals  the  ideal  form  at 
which  nature  aims  in  the  highest  sphere  of  organic  existence, 
—  in  the  region  namely  of  human  life  where  her  intention  is 
most  manifest,  though  her  failures  too  are  most  numerous  .... 
Plato  saw  in  Fine  Art  an  illusion  as  opposed  to  the  reality  : 
Aristotle  saw  in  it  the  image  of  a  higher  reality.  The  end  is 
pleasure  for  the  spectator  or  hearer :  not  the  recreation 
(avaTravo-is),  nor  the  pastime  (?rai8ta)  which  may  be  afforded 
by  the  lower  arts  to  the  weary  or  to  children,  but  rational 
enjoyment  (StuywyT?),  the  delight  which  comes  from  the  ideal 
employment  of  leisure."  Professor  Butcher  gives  copious 
references  to  the  original.  He  has  made  an  exhaustive  study 
of  Doring  and  Teichmiiller,  but  is  by  no  means  dependent  on 
them.  All  of  these  ideas  and  many  others  have  now  been 
embodied  in  Butcher's  latest  work,  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry 
and  Fine  Art  (with  a  critical  text  and  a  translation  of  the  Poetics. 
Lond. :  1895).  This  book  takes  rank  as  the  most  complete 
apparatus  in  English  for  the  study  of  Aristotle's  aesthetics.  One 
of  the  most  profoundly  critical  studies  of  the  subject  has  been 
made  by  A.  Doring,  Die  Kunstlehre  des  Aristoteles  (Jena: 


H.}  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  153 

1876).  Chapter  i  considers  the  Aesthetics  in  its  broader 
sense  and  in  relation  to  the  Aristotelian  system  ;  Chapter  2, 
Aesthetic  and  Imitation  in  the  limited  aspects  of  the  dis- 
cussion. Boring  falls  foul  of  Teichmiiller  (see  below),  at  nearly 
every  step  of  the  discussion,  and  on  the  whole  makes  good 
his  critical  position.  The  work  is  a  storehouse  of  biblio- 
graphical reference  and  supplementary  material.  E\  Egger, 
Essai  sur  1'Histoire  de  la  Critique  chez  les  Grecs  (2e  ed.  Paris  : 
1886),  is  of  unquestioned  worth.  The  translation  of  Aristotle's 
Poetics  which  appeared  in  the  first  edition  has  been  omitted  from 
the  second  to  make  way  for  a  large  amount  of  new  material  in 
the  way  of  criticism  and  exposition.  The  student  will  find  the 
Essay,  if  not  the  most  profound,  one  of  the  most  lucid  and  com- 
prehensive treatises  on  Greek  aesthetics  and  rhetoric  (both  are 
included  in  the  term  critique)  available  in  any  language.  For 
theories  of  imitation  see  pp.  144—148,  199,  238—245,  336.  J. 
Frohschammer's  Ueber  die  Principien  der  Aristotelischen  Philo- 
sophic (Miinchen:  1881)  is  of  the  systematic  order.  Apposite  to 
this  subject  are  pp.  98-106  Die  Kunst  als  allgemeine  Analogic 
in  der  Aristotelischen  Welterklarung.  More  closely  bearing  upon 
the  discussion  is  F.  Heidemann's  inaugural  dissertation  De  doc- 
trinae  artium  Aristotelicae  principiis  (Halle  :  1875).  Masson  in 
Theories  of  Poetry  (Essays,  Biographical  and  Critical)  attempts 
to  distinguish  sharply  between  the  Aristotelian  '  imitation  '  and 
the  Baconian  'creation'  —  but  bases  his  argument  upon  a 
misconception  of  Aristotle's  philosophy.  See  §§  19,  20.  Ed. 
Miiller  in  Uebej  das  Nachahmende  in  der  Kunst  nach  Plato 
(Ratibor  :  1831),  and  the  Geschichte  der  Theorie  der  Kunst  bei 
den  Alten  (Breslau :  1834)  has  given  us  the  most  learned 
treatises  on  Greek  aesthetics.  One  of  the  clearest  and  most 
discriminating  expositions  of  the  theory  of  Imitation  is  to  be 
found  on  pp.  359  et  seq.  of  the  Geschichte.  An  elementary  but 
still  comprehensive  and  careful  study  has  been  recently  issued 
by  Prickard  :  Aristotle  on  the  Art  of  Poetry.  See  pp.  19-35 


154  LITERARY  CRITICISM,  [§  9,  //. 

and  65-68.  "  When  he  says  that  poetry  is  imitation,  Aristotle 
is  asserting  its  power  to  set  forth  a  special  and  an  elevated  kind 
of  truth  ....  After  allowing  for  the  power  which  lies  in  mere 
eloquence  and  rhythm,  and  for  the  subtler  charm  of  association, 
is  it  not  still  the  simple  elementary  feelings  upon  which  the  epic 
poet  plays,  reproducing  and  imitating  them?"  (p.  65).  Among 
English  scholars,  Pye  and  Twining  though  not  broadly  philo- 
sophical are  to  be  regarded  as  authorities  on  the  Poetics.  In 
the  first  volume  of  Modern  Painters,  Ruskin  treats  of  Ideas  of 
Imitation,  placing  them  lowest  in  the  scale  of  art-ideas.  His 
definition  of  imitation  is  arbitrary,  but  has  the  merit,  if  it  be 
one,  of  restricting  the  term  to  a  definite  range  of  aesthetic  effects. 
Reinkens,  Teichmuller,  and  Ueberweg  have  made  special  study 
of  the  Poetics.  The'first  in  his  Aristoteles  iiber  Kunst,  beson- 
ders  liber  Tragodie  (Wien  :  1870)  ;  the  second  in  his  Aristote- 
lische  Forschungen  (3  v.  in  i,  Halle  :  1867-9),  which  is  the  best 
general  commentary  on  the  Poetics.  Vol.  I  consists  of  running 
annotations  on  the  text;  vol.  II  is  a  dissertation  on  Aristotle's 
philosophy  of  Art.  Chapter  i  of  the  second  volume  treats  of  the 
common  nature  of  the  fine  arts,  or  of  the  meaning  of  imitation. 
On  the  different  significations  of  the  word  Imitation  see  pp.  143- 
145.  Section  i,  pp.  145-155  elaborates  the  important  thesis: 
Works  of  Fine  Art  are  reproductions  (Ebenbilder)  of  reality  as  it 
is  given  in  (exists  for)  the  Phantasy  (Imagination).  Teichmuller 
distinguishes  between  symbol  and  likeness ;  shows  that  the  arts 
furnish  likenesses  of  reality ;  explains  the  relation  of  the  like- 
ness in  the  imagination  to  the  work  of  art,  and  asserts  that  his 
proposition,  as  above  enunciated,  holds  good  for  poetry  —  the 
highest  of  the  arts.  In  chapter  2  he  considers  the  object 
imitated  by  art;  shows  that  nature  and  art  have  the  same  ideal, 
and  attempts  to  prove  that  the  object  of  the  imitation  is  deter- 
mined by  the  laws  of  truth  and  beauty.  On  pp.  200-207  he 
explains  the  aim  and  effect  of  imitative  art.  For  an  unsympa- 
thetic handling  of  his  premises,  Boring  should  be  consulted. 


//.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  155 

Ueberweg's  Aristotelis  Ars  Poetica  (Griechisch  und  Deutsch) 
is  valuable  for  the  Anmerkungen,  pp.  47-91.  Anmerkung  2 
develops  briefly  the  thesis  that  Aristotle  by  the  term  artistic 
imitation  meant  not  a  slavish  copying  (Nachbildung)  of 
the  particular  object,  but  a  representation  (Darstellung)  which 
expresses  reality  and  law  in  concrete  form.  See  also  under 
Anmerkungen  23,  25,  39-41.  With  these  notes  may  be  read 
pp.  177-180  of  the  author's  Hist.  Philos.  volume  I — although 
the  passage  deals  rather  with  catharsis  than  with  imitation  ;  and 
also  his  Die  Lehre  d.  Aristot.  von  d.  Wesen  und  d.  Wirkung  d. 
Kunst  (Zeitschr.  f.  Philos.  36  :  260—291  ;  50  :  16—39).  O^  a  more 
general  character  are  the  appropriate  sections  in  M.  Schasler's 
Kritische  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik ;  and  E.  Zeller's  Die  Philo- 
sophic der  Griechen  (31.6  Aufl.  Leipz. :  1879).  In  the  former, 
see  vol.  I,  pp.  120—203  f°r  exposition  of  Aristotle;  especially 
pp.  136-146,  on  imitation.  Schasler  interprets  Aristotle's  /U/ATJO-IS 
as  the  clothing  of  the  idea  according  to  laws  of  natural  form,  or 
the  representation  of  nature  according  to  the  laws  of  the  idea. 
In  the  latter  see  Theil  2,  Abth.  2,  Aristoteles  und  die  alten 
Peripatetiker,  pp.  763-770  Die  Nachahmung.  The  author  bases 
his  statement  of  Aristotle's  theory  on  passages  from  the 
originals,  principally  the  Poetics,  which  are  cited  in  full,  and 
shows  how  Plato's  conception  of  art  (mere  copy  of  sensible 
phenomena,  worthy  of  contempt  as  untrue  and  worthless)  falls 
below  the  Aristotelian  conception. 

E.  Wallace's  Outlines  of  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle  (Oxford 
and  Lond. :  1880)  is  useful  as  furnishing  in  brief  and  lucid  form, 
and  with  appropriate  references,  the  general  information  requisite 
for  a  systematic  study  of  Aristotle's  theory  of  art.  The  same 
writer's  Aristotle's  Psychology,  in  Greek  and  English,  with 
Introduction  and  Notes  (Cambridge:  1882),  is  even  more 
serviceable.  Pp.  Ixxxvi-xcvii  of  the  Introduction,  on  Imagina- 
tion, Dreams,  Memory,  furnish  a  trustworthy  outline  of  the 
theory  of  Images.  This  section  should  be  read  in  connection 


156  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

with  Bk.  Ill,  chap.  3  of  the  Psychol.  (de  Anima).  J.  C.  van 
Dyke  discusses  '  Imitation '  in  a  semi-popular  style,  in  the  opening 
chapters  of  Parts  i  and  2  of  his  Principles  of  Art ;  and  E.  Veron 
makes  occasional,  not  extremely  profitable,  reference  to  the 
subject  in  his  Aesthetics. 

In  Mind  for  July,  1895,  Mr.  R.  P.  Hardie  expounds  certain 
doctrines  of  the  Poetics  with  special  reference  to  the  inter- 
pretations of  Bosanquet,  Prickard,  and  Butcher.  He  thinks 
that  the  great  advance  of  Aristotle  upon  Plato  is  the  former's 
introduction  of  the  conception  of  v\rj,  'medium.'  "This  con- 
ception necessarily  modifies  in  an  important  way  the  meaning 
of  p,L/j.r)(Ti<;  ....  When  it  is  recognized  that  two  things  having 
the  same  etSos  may  differ  in  respect  of  v\rj,  there  is  no  longer 
any  reason  why  the  copy  should  be  regarded  as  an  attempt  to 
rival  reality.  The  imitation  is  simply  the  solution  of  an  artistic 
problem  :  —  Given  xy  when  x  is  e?8os  and  y  vXrj,  to  express  x  in 
terms  of  a  new  medium  y'.  The  relation  of  xy'  to  xy  is  naturally 
expressed  by  '  imitation,'  or  /U'/ATJO-IS  in  its  ordinary  meaning. 
We  may  call  the  other  relation,  that  of  xy'  to  x  (or  of  xy  to  .v), 
'expression.' .  .  .  Now  both  Plato  and  Aristotle  use  /u'/x^o-is  of 
the  latter  relation  as  well  as  of  the  former.  In  the  case  of 
Plato  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  his  theory  x,  the  iSea,  is  merely 
another  concrete  reality,  over  and  above,  and  somehow  external 
to  xy'.  But  the  case  of  Aristotle  is  different.  He  must  have 
been  aware,  to  some  extent  at  least,  of  the  perpendicular  relation, 
so  to  speak,  of  xy'  to  x  as  distinct  in  kind  from  the  horizontal 
relation  of  xy'  to  xy." 

Many  of  the  critical  expositions  of  the  Poetics  are  men- 
tioned in  §§  8,  20,  38,  47  (under  Aristotle),  and  in  the 
bibliography  of  editions,  Appendix  to  this  volume.  Espe- 
cially valuable  to  the  investigator  of  the  topic  now  under 
consideration  are  Spengel  (in  Abh.  d.  k.  bayer.  Akad.  der  Wiss., 
philos.-philolog.  Cl.,  II,  1837,  un^  XI,  1867);  Vahlen  in  his 
B^itrage  zu  Arist.  Poet  (Sitzungsberichte  der  philos.-hist.  Cl.  der 


//.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  157 

k.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.  Wien :  1865-6);  F.  Ritter,  Arist.  Poet., 
Koln:  1839;  Barth.  St.  Hilaire,  Poet.  Arist.,  Paris:  1858; 
J.  A.  Hartung,  Lehren  d.  Alten  iiber  die  Dichtkunst,  Hamb. : 
1845;  a  profound  treatise  of  115  pages  by  F.  L.  G.  von  Raumer, 
Ueber  die  Poetik  des  Aristoteles  u.  sein  Verhaltniss  zu  den 
neuern  Dramatikern  (Berlin  Akad.  Wiss.  Abh.  1828);  and  Ver- 
mischte  Schriften,  vol.  2;  Ernst  Essen,  Bemerkungen  zu 
Aristoteles'  Poetik;  H.  Martin,  Analyse  critique  de  la  poetique 
d'Aristote  (1836.  These);  W.  Schrader,  De  Artis  apud  Arist. 
notione  ac  vi,  Berlin:  1843,  Miinchen :  1881  ;  F.  Susemihl, 
Studien  zur  Aristot.  Poetik  (Rhein.  Mus.  18:  366,  471; 
19:  197;  22:  217);  F.  C.  Petersen,  Oin  den  Aristoteliske 
Poetik  (in  Skandin.  Litteraturselskab.  vol.  XVI)  ;  J.  Lemaitre, 
Corneille  et  la  poetique  d'Aristote,  Paris:  1888,  and  the  Rev. 
d.  Deux  Mondes,  1888,  IV:  830;  Ch.  Be'nard,  L'Esthe'tique 
d'Aristote  et  de  ses  successeurs,  Paris:  1889.  As  stated  above 
(Plato's  Theory  of  Art),  the  De  Pulchri  atque  Artis  notione  of 
R.  Haym,  sets  forth  with  remarkable  clearness  the  respective 
theories  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Plotinus. 

(7)    The  Post- Aristotelians  on  Imitation  : 

For  theories  of  the  relation  of  art  to  nature  in  the  suc- 
cessors of  Aristotle  such  as  Chrysippus,  Poseidonius,  Seneca, 
Philodemus,  Dionysius  of  Halicarnassus,  see  Bosanquet,  Hist. 
Aesth.  99-103.  For  Theophrastus  Trepi  /u.ou<n/c^s,  see  Zeller's 
Aristoteles,  867-869,  and  Egger's  Hist.  Crit.  345  ;  also 
Plutarch,  Symp.  lib.  i,  Quaest.  5,  who  cites  Theophrastus' 
three  principles  of  the  origin  of  music  (pain,  pleasure,  and 
enthusiasm).  For  Aristoxenus,  another  disciple  of  Aristotle, 
see  Zeller  and  Egger.  A  French  translation  of  Aristoxenus' 
On  Music  has  been  made  by  M.  E.  Ruelle  (Paris:  1870).  On 
theories  of  imitation,  representation,  and  symbolism  among  the 
Peripatetics,  Stoics,  and  Epicureans,  see  Schasler  i:  204—210. 
Among  the  Eclectics,  Cicero  and  Plutarch  have  contributed  to 
the  discussion.  Cicero,  in  the  following  passages:  Orator  71 


158  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

We  must  be  content  with  the  probable  in  all  things  since  the 
truth  is  hidden  ;  De  Inventione  2:  12  Art  works  by  selection 
from  particulars  ;  De  Officiis  i  :  i,  27-36  and  Orator, 
chaps.  2,  3.  Plutarch,  in  De  Audiendis  Poetis  2,  Symp.  5, 
Quaest.  i,  and  Symp.  7,  Quaest.  5. 

Of  the  critical  grammarians  and  rhetoricians,  Dionysius  of 
Halicarnassus  and  Dio  Chrysostom  have  made  contributions  to 
the  theory  in  question.  For  Dionysius  see  Schasler  i  :  219,220, 
and  Professor  Nettleship's  Literary  Criticism  in  Latin  Antiquity 
(Journ.  Philol.  18:  230).  Dio  Chrysostom's  conception  of 
legitimate  symbolism  in  art  and  of  the  boundaries  between 
poetry  and  the  formative  arts  (cf.  Lessing's  Laokoon)  will  be 
found  in  the  De  Dei  Cognitione  Oratio  1 2  (pp.  400  et  scq.  of 
Reiske's  edition ;  the  passage  is  translated  by  Egger  and 
Bosanquet).  Commentary  on  Chrysostom  will  be  found  in 
Schasler  p.  222,  Bosanquet  p.  108,  and  Egger  pp.  440—455. 

The  writings  of  Plotinus  as  developing  the  possibilities  of 
Plato's  aesthetic  beyond  the  narrow  theory  of  imitation,  and 
definitely  propounding  a  doctrine  of  symbolism,  are  more  impor- 
tant than  any  other  contribution  to  the  subject  since  the  death 
of  Aristotle.  The  best  guides  to  Plotinus'  writings  on  Beauty, 
v/hich  are  included  in  his  Enneads,  are  Ed.  Miiller  2  :  285-315, 
Schasler  i  :  233-251,  Bosanquet  111-119,  Egger  474,  475.  The 
standard  edition  of  his  works  is  by  Creuzer.  The  Enneads  are 
translated  by  H.  F.  Miiller  (Berlin  :  1878)  —  Ennead  i,  Bk.  i, 
chap.  6  Das  Schone  ;  and  by  others  cited  in  §  8,  PLOTINUS. 

In  Philostratus  the  Elder  (Flavius),  Vita  Apoll.  vi.  19  (circa 
A.D.  210),  ^avTcuna  is  distinguished  from  ^u^cris.  The  former 
is  of  a  higher  grade  than  the  latter.  "tun-curta.  creates  that  which 
it  has  not  seen,  /u^o-is  reproduces  what  it  has  seen.  The  statues 
of  the  gods  by  Phidias  and  Praxiteles  are  therefore  productions 
of  the  tfrwrturii.  Butcher,  Greek  Genius,  p.  279,  considers  this 
the  nearest  approach  in  Greek  literature  to  the  idea  of  imagina- 
tion as  a  creative  faculty.  Cf.  Philostratus,  Imagines  1:15,  and 


H.}  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  159 

see  Schasler  i  :  249,  250  for  the  relation  between  the  theories  of 
Philostratus  and  Plotinus  ;  consult,  also,  Egger  511-515,  Bosan- 
quet  109,  Overbeck,  Schriftquellen  zur  Geschichte  der  bildenden 
Kiinste  801,  and  Ed.  Miiller  2  :  317  et  scq.  The  treatise  on 
the  Sublime,  attributed  to  Longinus,  is  discussed  by  Bosan- 
quet,  pp.  104—106,  by  Andrew  Lang  in  his  introduction  to 
Havell's  translation,  and  by  Egger,  pp.  476-484;  but,  except  in 
one  or  two  passages,  quoted  by  Bosanquet,  the  essay  on  the 
Sublime  does  not  touch  upon  the  aesthetic  theory  of  imitation. 
In  James  Drummond's  Philo  Judaeus  (London  :  1888),  2  :  97, 
will  be  found  an  instructive  passage  on  the  oneness  of  art  under 
all  its  manifestations.  "Perfect  art,"  concludes  Philo,  "being 
an  imitation  of  nature,  seals  all  materials  with  the  same  idea." 

The  utterances  and  the  practice  of  the  Roman  poets  are  of 
indirect  rather  than  of  positive  value  in  the  discussion.  The 
Ars  Poetica  of  Horace  is  historically,  if  not  critically,  helpful. 
See  Bishop  Hurd's  notes.  For  the  best  known  of  Horace's  poetic 
canons  see  Ars  Poetica,  333,  334,  343  ;  Epist.  Lib.  II,  i  :  126, 
138.  By  far  the  most  fruitful  of  recent  articles  on  aesthetic 
theory  among  the  Romans  is  Nettleship's  Literary  Criticism  in 
Latin  Antiquity  (Journ,  Philol.,  vol.  18,  p.  230,  to  which  refer- 
ence has  already  been  made ;  and  F.  Barta's  Ueber  die  auf  d. 
Dichtkunst  beziiglichen  Ausdriicke  bei  den  romischen  Dichtern; 
i  Dichten  u.  Dichter,  Prog.  Linz  a.  D.:  1889;  2  Gedicht,  1890). 

To  the  relation  of  allegorical  representation  to  natural  and 
traditional  symbolism  in  the  formative  art  and  the  architec- 
ture of  the  ancients,  Bosanquet,  referring  to  Overbeck,  Carriere, 
Wm.  Morris,  and  other  authorities,  devotes  an  interesting  and 
suggestive  section  of  chapter  5,  Hist.  Aesth.  Concerning 
theories  of  the  relation  of  art  to  nature  in  the  Early  Christian 
and  the  Middle  Ages,  something  of  value  may  be  gathered  from 
Egger,  524—570;  Schasler,  i  :  250,  251  ;  Bosanquet,  120—150; 
Carriere,  Die  Kunst  in  Zusam.  d.  Culturentwickelung,  3:  77- 
138.  The  names  of  St.  Augustine,  Gregory  the  Great,  Abelard, 


160  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9, //. 

Scotus  Erigefta,  St.  Francis  of  Assisi,  and  Thomas  Aquinas 
will  indicate  the  line  of  investigation  to  be  pursued. 

II)    Among  the  Moderns. 

For  references  to  the  works  of  modern  authorities,  Schasler, 
Bosanquet,  and  Von  Hartmann  may  be  consulted.  Shaftesbury 
considers  art  to  be  the  construction  of  material  according  to 
the  standard  of  Beauty.  Lord  Kames  limits  natural  beauty 
and  consequently  the  representation  of  it  to  the  objects  of 
vision.  Batteux  (Traite  des  Beaux  Arts)  thinks  that  he  is 
inculcating  Aristotle's  theory  of  imitation  while  he  is  more 
nearly  advocating  Plato's,  and  draws  a  distinction  between 
mechanical,  fine,  and  ornamental  art  which,  although  mistaken, 
still  obtains  in  certain  quarters  of  French  criticism.  Diderot 
(Essais  sur  la  Peinture)  also  makes  imitation  the  principle  of 
his  aesthetics,  but  while  he  appears  to  understand  that  nature 
should  be  imitated,  according  to  Aristotle,  not  as  an  object, 
but  as  a  process,  he  falls  into  the  grievous  error  of  attributing 
infallibility  to  natural  processes  :  "  Nature,"  he  says,  "  makes 
nothing  that  is  incorrect,"  a  radically  non-Aristotelian  thesis. 
He  does  well,  however,  in  insisting  upon  the  imitation  of  the 
characteristic  in  nature.  By  confusing  actuality  with  truth, 
Baumgarten  in  his  Aesthetica  comes  to  a  conclusion  like  that  of 
Diderot  concerning  the  perfection  of  natural  objects  presented 
to  perception,  deducing  therefrom  the  dictum  :  u  The  whole 
duty  of  the  artist  lies  in  the  exact  imitation  of  nature."  Karl 
Philipp  Moritz  in  his  pamphlet,  Ueber  die  bildende  Nach- 
ahmung  des  Schonen,  Braunschweig:  1788,  advances  a  theory 
of  imitation  as  emulation  of  the  model  given  in  nature,  which, 
although  his  argument  ends  in  the  air,  is  at  least  suggestive  of 
the  truth. 

Winckelmann,  through  all  his  writings,  his  Ueber  den 
Geschmack  der  griechischen  Kunst,  his  Ueber  die  Erganzung 
der  alten  Statuen,  his  Kunst-Geschichte,  his  critique  of  his 
own  work  Ueber  die  Nachbildung  der  Alten,  emphasizes  and 


//.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  161 

reiterates  the  well-known  proposition,  that  there  is  but  one  art, 
that  of  the  Greeks,  and  that  would-be  artists  of  modern  times 
must  draw  from  this  well  of  inspiration.  By  this  statement  he 
meant  not  that  modern  artists  must  imitate  the  creations  of  the 
ancients,  but  that  they  must  practice  the  ancient  manner  of 
imitation.  He  distinguishes  between  the  servile  copying  and 
the  selective  imitation  of  nature,  and  by  nature  he  means  the 
ideal  beauties  revealed  in  nature.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
remind  the  student  of  the  Laokoon  and  the  Hamburgische  Dra- 
maturgic of  Lessing,  and  of  the  important  distinction  which  that 
critic  makes  between  the  kinds  of  imitation  appropriate  to  poetry 
and  to  painting.  Herder  (Kritische  Walder  u.  s.  w.,  Riga  : 
1769  ;  Plastik  u.  s.  w.,  Riga:  1778  ;  Kalligone)  appears  to 
narrow  art  to  the  imitation  of  natural  beauty,  but  his  identifica- 
tion of  the  Beautiful  with  the  True  and  the  Good  again  extends 
the  scope  of  the  artist.  On  Kant  and  the  opinions  of  writers 
who  succeeded  him,  Goethe,  Schiller,  Jean  Paul,  W.  von  Hum- 
boldt,  Friedrich  Schlegel,  Adam  Miiller,  Solger,  and  others  of  that 
period,  the  student  must  be  referred  to  Bosanquet  and  Schasler, 
whence  the  step  to  the  originals  (see  §  8),  is  easily  made. 
For  Schelling's  opinions  Ueber  das  Verhaltniss  der  bildenden 
Kunste  zu  der  Natur,  see  the  Sammtliche  Werke,  Bd.  7,  Abth. 
i,  289-329.  Hegel's  arraignment  of  the  theory  of  imitation  as 
the  end  of  art  is  brief,  but  conclusive.  See  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  pp. 
55-61;  Bosanquet's  Trans.,  pp.  79-87  ;  Kedney's  Exposition, 
pp.  15—18.  The  superfluousness  of  Kedney's  criticism  on  p.  16 
will  be  'seen  by  reference  to  the  original,  esp.  p.  58  of  the 
Aesthetik,  —  p.  84  of  Bosanquet's  Trans.  Cf.  Aesthetik,  p.  5, 
Bosanquet's  Trans.,  pp.  4,  5.  In  F.  T.  Vischer's  Aesthetik,  and 
in  Schopenhauer's  World  as  Will  and  Idea  (Haldane  and 
Kemp),  vol.  I,  pp.  219—346,  and  vol.  Ill,  173—219,  231—244,  will 
be  found  valuable  material,  as  also  in  Von  Hartmann's  Aesthetik. 
For  Von  Hartmann's  exposition  of  Deutinger's  views  on  imita- 
tion, see  vol.  II,  pp.  184-187;  of  Kirchmann's,  see  pp.  256-259; 


162  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§9,  //. 

of  Zirrrmermann's,  pp.  270,  271.  On  the  interesting  question, 
how  architecture  is  to  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  imitation,  see 
the  author's  discussion  of  Schelling,  pp.  466,  467.  For  Von 
Hartmann's  view  of  imitation  as  one  of  the  three  preliminary 
stages  of  artistic  activity,  see  vol.  II,  pp.  523-526.  The  subject 
is~  touched  upon  in  several  other  places ;  see  index  under 
Nachahmung. 

The  best  modern  exposition  is  that  of  Bosanquet  in  his 
paper,  The  Part  played  by  Aesthetic  in  the  Growth  of  Modern 
Philosophy  (Proc.  Arist.  Soc.  I.  2,  pp.  77-96),  with  which  cf. 
his  History  of  Aesthetic. 

The  following  authors  have  been  selected  for  brief  mention  : 
Professor  Bain,  Emotions  and  the  Will,  pp.  156,  182,  183, 
196,  197,  204,  225  ;  Beckenstedt,  Die  Nachahmung  der  Natur 
in  der  Kunst  ;  Baldwin  Brown,  The  Fine  Arts  (an  excellent 
introduction  to  the  subject) ;  Ch.  Benard,  L'Esthe'tique  con- 
temporaine :  La  Mimique  dans  le  Systeme  des  Beaux- Arts 
(Rev.  Philos.  28  :  225.  Be'nard  advocates  a  psychological  and 
physiological  basis  for  the  investigation  of  the  arts  as  members 
of  an  organism.  The  utility  of  a  theory  which  predicates  a 
system  of  united  arts,  is,  however,  called  in  question  by 
Lotze) ;  Walter  Borman,  Kunst  und  Nachahmung  (Stuttg.: 
1892);  E.  S.  Dallas,  The  Gay  Science,  vol.  I,  pp.  97-111; 
Diderot,  The  Paradox  of  Acting,  translated  by  W.  H.  Pollock, 
with  a  Preface  by  Henry  Irving  (London:  1883);  C.  C. 
Everett,  Poetry,  Comedy  and  Duty  (the  object  of  Prof. 
Everett's  chapters  on  The  Philosophy  of  Poetry,  pp.  50—97,  is 
to  reconcile  Aristotle's  definition  of  poetry  as  imitation  and 
Milton's  specification  that  it  should  be  "impassioned"  a);  Alex- 
ander von  Humboldt,  Cosmos  (transl.  Otte'),  vol.  2,  pp.  1-105; 
The  description  of  nature  in  poetry  and  painting;  Kawczinski, 
(see  §  23),  pp.  17,  18,  20,  30  Imitation  ;  Professor  Knight, 

1  Milton's  word  is  "passionate."  See  the  Tractate  on  Education,  and  Mod. 
Lang.  Notes  5  :  230. 


/.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  163 

Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  vol.  II,  pp.  56-65  (the  author 
concurs  with  Goethe  in  his  maxim  "Art  is  art,  precisely  because 
it  is  not  nature  ") ;  J.  F.  Marmontel,  FJe'ments  de  Litterature 
(for  Imitation  see  vol.  I,  Action;  vol.  Ill,  Unite);  D.  Masson, 
Essays  Biographical  and  Critical,  pp.  408-424;  G.  S.Morris, 
Philosophy  of  Art,  J.  Spec.  Philos.  10:  i;  J.  F.  Pici,  De 
imitatione  libellus,  1530  ;  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  An  Essay 
on  the  Nature,  the  End,  and  the  Means  of  Imitation  in  the  Fine 
Arts,  transl.  by  J.  C.  Kent  (an  elaborate  if  somewhat  conven- 
tional discussion);  B.  Riccii,  De  imitatione  libri  tres,  Venetiis: 
1541;  J.  J.  Rousseau,  De  1'imitation  the'atrale  (CEuvres  Com- 
pletes, vol.  Ill,  pp.  183-191,  a  rather  superficial  contribution 
to  the  subject);.  P.  Stapfer,  Petite  comedie  de  la  critique 
litte'raire  (Paris:  1866),  pp.  366-368 ;  Wm.  Main,  Expression 
in  Nature  (Lond.:  1894);  E.  du  Bois-Reymond,  Relation  of 
Natural  Science  to  Art  (Smithsonian  Reports,  1891);  Victor 
Cherbuliez,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes  15  Juin,  i  et  15  Juillet,  i  et  15 
Aout  1891  L'art  et  la  nature;  K..  Biederman,  Nord  u.  Siid, 
1883,  p.  95  Die  Natur  als  Gegenstand  poetischer  Empfindung 
und  Darstellung  ;  Ernst  Hallier,  Aesthetik  der  Natur  (Stuttgart: 
1890)  ;  R.  Vischer,  D.  Rundschau  76  :  192  Ueber  aesthetische 
Naturbetrachtung  ;  Adam  Smith,  Of  the  Imitative  Arts  (Works, 
vol.  V,  p.  241). 

/  GROWTH  OF  THE  FEELING  FOR  NATURE. — In  presenting  the 
literature  of  this  important  topic,  we  may  distinguish  between 
writings  jntended  for  the  general  reader  and  writings  intended 
for  the  specialist.  To  the  first  class  belong  such  works  and 
articles  as  the  following  :  J.  Veitch,  The  Feeling  for  Nature  in 
Scottish  Poetry  (2  vols.  Edinb.:  1887.  The  introductory 
chapters  treat  nature-feeling  in  general)  ;  E.  Dowden  Contemp. 
2  '•  535  Poetical  Feeling  for  Nature  (an  article  of  unusual 
interest) ;  E.  Dowden,  Studies  in  Literature  (Lond.:  1889), 
chapter  on  The  Scientific  Movement  in  Literature;  Hamerton, 
Portfolio  Papers  (Notes  on  Aesthetics);  Symonds,  Essays 


164  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  //. 

Speculative  and  Suggestive,  vol.  II,  pp.  78-149  (on  Landscape 
and  Nature-myths)  ;  Victor  de  Laprade,  Histoire  du  Sentiment 
de  la  Nature  (Paris  :  1883). 

Among  those  of  the  second  class  attention  may  be  drawn 
first  to  the  highly  original  paper  by  Bosanquet  on  The  Part 
played  by  Aesthetic  in  the  Growth  of  Modern  Philosophy 
(Proc.  Arist.  Soc.  I.  2,  pp.  77-96)  and  to  the  observa- 
tions scattered  through  the  same  author's  History  of  Aes- 
thetic. With  this  philosophical  treatment,  compare  the 
"  scientific "  views  of  Posnett  presented  in  the  latter's  work 
on  Comparative  Literature  (see  index  under  Nature).  Still 
more  profound  are  the  voluminous  writings  of  the  Germans, 
among  whom  A.  Biese  takes  a  foremost  place.  The  following 
are  the  most  important  of  Biese's  contributions  :  Die  Ent- 
wickelung  des  Naturgefiihls  bei  den  Griechen  (Kiel:  1882); 
Die  Entw.  d.  Naturgefiihls  bei  d.  Romern  (Kiel:  1884)  ;  Die 
Entw.  d.  Naturgefuhls  im  Mittelalter  und  in  der  Neuzeit  (Leipz.: 
1888);  Das  Metaphoriscbe  in  d.  dichterischen  Phantasie  ; 
Zeits.  f.  Volkerpsychol.  20  :  245  Die  poetische  Naturbeseelung 
bei  den  Griechen  (1890);  Zeits.  f.  d.  deiitschcn  Unterricht  5. 
Jahrg.  pp.  822—839  Die  Naturlyrik  Ludwig  Uhland's  und 
Eduard  Morike's ;  Zeits.  f.  vergleich.  Litteraturgcschichte. 
N.F.  7:  311  Zur  Litteratur  der  Geschichte  des  Naturgefuhls 
(reviews  at  length  previous  contributions  to  the  literature  of 
this  subject).  A  few  other  German  writers  have  ventured  to 
discuss  nature-feeling  in  both  its  ancient  and  its  modern  aspects, 
as  K.  K.  Hense  in  his  article  Ueber  das  Naturgefiihl  in  alter 
und  neuer  Poesje  (Zeits.  f.  vergl.  Litteraturgesch.  N.F.  i :  182), 
and  Winter,  in  his  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  des  Naturgefuhls 
(Harburg  :  1883)  ;  but  the  majority  have  so  far  specialized  in 
this  field  as  to  restrict  their  researches  either  to  its  ancient  or 
to  its  modern  aspects. 

Of  those  who  have  discussed  nature-feeling  among  the 
ancients,  the  following  are  especially  worthy  of  note :  Ad. 


/.]  INVESTIGATION  OF  SPECIAL   PROBLEMS.  165 

Gerber,  Naturpersonification  in  Poesie  und  Kunst  der  Alten 
(Bes.  Abdr.  aus  d.  XIII.  Supplementbande  d.  Jahrb.  f. 
klass.  Philol.,  pp.  241—317);  Grosse,  Ueber  Naturanschauung 
d.  alten  griechischen  und  romischen  Dichter  (Progr.  Ascher- 
leben  :  1890);  O.  Koerner,  Ueber  d.  Naturbeobachtung  im 
homerischen  Zeitalter  (Frankfurt  a.  M.:  1886.  Sonder-Abdr. 
aus  d.  Bericht  iib.  d.  Senckenberg.  Naturforsch.  Gesellschaft 
in  Frankf.) ;  H.  Planck,  Die  Entwickelung  des  Naturgef iihls  im 
Alterthum  (Stuttgart :  1891.  Beilage  des  Staats-Anzeigers  fiir 
Wiirtemberg,  pp.  145-148);  L.  Schmidt,  Die  Ethik  der  Alten 
Griechen  (2  vols.  Berlin.:  1881—2,  Bd.  2,  p.  80  Der  Mensch  im 
Verhaltniss  zur  Naturumgebung) ;  Chr.  Semler,  Jahrb.  d.  offentl. 
Handelslehranstalt  zu  Dresden,  1891,  pp.  3-26  Die  Gleichnisse 
Homers  aus  der  Natur  und  ihre  Bedeutung  f.  den  Unterricht 
und  die  Erziehung  ;  W.  Straub,  Der  Natursinn  der  alten 
Griechen  (Progr.  Stuttgart:  1889);  Ed.  Voss,  Die  Natur  in 
der  Dichtung  des  Horaz  (Diisseldorf :  1889)  ;  L.  Friedlander, 
Das  Interesse  fiir  Natur  und  das  Naturgefiihl  iiberhaupt,  Die 
Entwickelung  d.  Gefiihls  fiir  d.  Romantische  in  d.  Natur  im 
Gegensatz  zum  antiken  Naturgefiihl  (Sittengeschichte  Roms, 
5th  ed.  3  vols.  Leipz.:  1881,  vol.  II,  pp.  170-243.  An  admir- 
able analysis  of.  the  emotions  aroused  in  ancient  Roman  tourists 
by  objects  of  natural  scenery). 

Of  German  writers  who  have  touched  upon  the  modern 
aspects  of  nature-feeling  may  be  mentioned  the  following : 
W.  Dilthey,  Arch.  f.  Geschichte  d.  Philos.  1889-! 1 :  45  Zu 
Goethe's  Philosophic  d.  Natur ;  H.  Drees,  Die  poetische 
Naturbetrachtung  in  den  Liedern  der  deutschen  Minne- 
sanger  (Festschr.  Wernigerode:  1888);  V.  Hehn,  Gedanken 
iiber  Goethe  (Berlin  :  1887),  pp.  277-307  Naturphantasie; 
Ludw.  Kaemmerer,  Die  Landschaft  in  der  deutschen  Kunst 
bis  zum  Tode  Albrecht  Diirer's  (Beitr.  z.  Kunstgeschichte, 
N.F.  4:  107.  Leipz.:  1886);  Max  Kuttner,  Das  Naturgefiihl 
der  Altfranzosen  und  sein  Einfluss  auf  ihre  Dichtung  (Diss. 


166  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  ///. 

Berlin:  1889);  O.  Luning,  Die  Natur,  ihre  Auffassung  und 
poetische  Verwendung  in  der  altgermanischen  und  mittel- 
hochdeutschen  Epik  bis  zum  Abschluss  der  Bliitezeit  (Zurich  : 
1889)  ;  K.  Marold,  Zeits.  f.  deutsche  Philol.  23 :  i  Ueber 
die  poetische  Verwertung  der  Natur  und  ihrer  Erschein- 
ung  in  den  Vagantenliedern  und  im  deutschen  Minnesang  ; 
Th.  Urbach,  Zur  Geschichte  des  Naturgef  iihls  bei  den  Deutschen 
(Progr.  Dresden  :  1885). 

///.  Methods  of  Research.  —  i.  Psychological.  —  Of  value  in 
the  investigation  of  psychological  methods  are  the  following 
books  and  articles :  L.  Arreat,  Psychologic  du  Peintre  (Paris  : 
1892);  Bain's  various  writings  (§  8);  II.  Cohen,  Die  dichterische 
Phantasie  und  der  Mechanismus  d.  Bewusstseins  (Berlin:  1869); 
J.  Dewey,  Psychology  (New  York  :  1887)  ;  C.  D.  Dimetresco, 
Der  Schonheitsbegriff  (Leipzig:  1877);  E.  Dreher,  Kunst  in 
ihrer  Beziehung  zur  Psychologic  u.  zur  Naturwissenschaft  (Ber- 
lin :  1878)  ;  O.  D.  Ernst,  Mag.  f.  Lift.  d.  In-  und  Auslamles, 
60 :  56  Gedankenwerkstatt  des  Dichters  ;  M.-J.  Guyau,  Rev.  d. 
D.  Mondes,  15  Aout,  1881  Le  Plaisir  du  Beau  et  le  Plaisir  du 
Jeu ;  C.  Hermann,  Aesthetische  Farbenlehre  (Leipzig :  1876) ; 
H.  Hoffding,  Outlines  of  Psychology;  Max  Jahn,  Psychologic 
als  Grundwissenschaft  der  Padagogik  (Leipzig:  1883),  pp.  96- 
103;  W.  James,  Principles  of  Psychology  (New  York:  1890. 
The  subject  of  aesthetic  is  purposely  excluded,  but  the  chapters 
on  Imagination  and  Feeling  are  rich  in  suggestions) ;  Robt. 
Jardine,  Elements  of  the  Psychology  of  Cognition  (London  : 
1874),  pp.  172-179;  Lazarus,  Das  Leben  d.  Seele  (2  vols. 
Berlin:  1875-8);  Ch.  LeVeque,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  Sept. 
1873  Le  Sens  du  Beau  chez  les  betes,  le  Darwinisme  psycholo- 
gique  et  la  Psychologie  compare'e  ;  H.  R.  Marshall.  Pain,  Pleas- 
ure, and  Aesthetics;  J.  C.  Murray,  Handbook  of  Psychology 
(London:  1885),  pp.  223-235,  387-390;  F.  Paulhan,  Rev, 
Philos.  19  :  652  Sur  Emotion  esthe'tique  ;  Th.  Ribot,  English 


METHODS  OF  RESEARCH.  167 


Psychology  (Translation.  New  York:  1874),  pp.  231-237; 
S.  Rubinstein,  Psychologisch-aesthetische  Essays  (Heidelberg  : 
1878);  P.  Souriau,  L'Esthetique,  La  Suggestion  dans  Part 
(Paris  :  1892);  P.  Souriau,  L'Esthe'tique  du  mouvement  (Paris  : 
1889);  J.  Sully,  Outlines  of  Psychology  (London  :  1884);  D.  G. 
Thompson,  A  System  of  Psychology  (2  vols.  London  :  1884), 
vol.  I,  pp.  585-594;  J.  Baldwin,  Psychology,  vol.  II. 

For  an  outline  of  study  consult  the  Syllabus  of  Lectures  on 
the  Psychology  of  Pain  and  Pleasure,  published  by  B.  I.  Gil- 
man  in  the  Am.  Jl.  Psychol.  6  :  i. 

2.  Physiological  and  Psycho- Physical.  —  As  the  subjects  are 
now  studied,  there  is  much  difficulty  in  drawing  the  line  between 
this  method  and  the  preceding.  Many  of  the  writings  cited 
under  the  former  head  might  also  be  called  studies  in  physiol- 
ogy, or  in  physiological  psychology.  Among  undoubted  inves- 
tigators in  this  field  are  Spencer,  Allen,  Zeising,  Fechner,  Helm- 
holtz,  Wundt,  and  Ladd.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  re- 
cent treatises  :  E.  Briicke,  Principes  scientifiques  des  beaux- 
arts  (Paris:  1893.  Together  with  Helmholtz's  L'optique  et 
les  Arts);  G.  Hirth,  Aufgaben  der  Kunstphysiologie  (Miinchen: 
1891;  also  as  Physiologic  de  1'art,  translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  L.  Arreat.  Paris:  1892);  Th.  Lipps,  Aesthetische 
Faktoren  der  Raumanschauung  (Beitrage  zur  Psychologic  und 
Physiologic  der  Sinnesorgane.  Hamburg  u.  Leipzig  :  1891,  pp. 
219—307);  P.  Montegazza,  Epikurische  Physiologic  d.  Schonen 
(translated  by  R.  Teuscher.  Jena:  1891);  L.  Witmer,  Philos. 
Studieh,  ix.  i  :  96-144,  2  :  209-263  Zur  experimentalen  Aes- 
thetik  einfacher  raumlichen  Formverhaltnisse ;  A.  Binet,  La 
Psychologic  Experimentale  (Paris  :  1894)  ;  Chas.  Pdkar,  Rev. 
Philos.  40:  186  Astigmatisme  et  esthdlique  (maintains  that 
certain  hitherto  inexplicable  aesthetic  preferences  are  due  to 
what  is  known  as  '  regular  astigmatism.'  Reference  is  made 
to  a  forthcoming  work  of  the  a-uthor's  entitled  Esthetique 
physiologique  et  psychologique,  of  which  the  first  part  ap- 


168  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  IV. 

peared  in  1890  in  the  Athenaeum,  a  philosophical  review 
published  by  the  Hungarian  Academy). 

An  interesting  article  by  Sorel  on  psycho-physical  contribu- 
tions to  the  study  of  aesthetics  will  be  found  in  Rev.  Philos.  29: 
561,  30:  22. 

3.  Sociological.  —  In  this  promising  field  the  laborers  are 
few  and  the  method  of  work  is  as  yet  but  ill  defined.  Among 
those  whose  writings  will  be  found  helpful  as  guides,  may  be 
mentioned  the  following  :  A.  Comte,  The  Positive  Philosophy 
(Translation.  N.  Y.  :  1854),  vols.  2,  pp.  213-220,  297-8, 
392-405  ;  H.  Spencer,  First  Principles,  and  Principles  of 
Sociology  ;  G.  de  Greef,  Introduction  a  la  sociologie  (2  vols. 
Bruxelles  et  Paris:  1886-9),  v°l-  2»  PP-  148-188  Fonctions  et 
organes  artistiques  (unusually  suggestive);  A.  Schaffle,  Bau 
und  Leben  des  socialen  Korpers  (4  vols.,  Tubingen:  1881, 
Index  under  Kunst).  (The  brief  but  numerous  references 
touch  upon  a  great  variety  of  problems);  L.  F.  Ward,  Dynamic 
Sociology  (2  vols.  N.  Y.  :  1883,  Index  under  Aesthetic  and 
Art) ;  M.  J.  Guyau,  L'Art  au  point  de  vue  sociologique 
(Paris:  1889);  Von  Hartmann,  Aesthetik,  vol.  2,  pp.  425-492 
Die  Stellung  des  Schonen  im  menschlichen  Geistesleben  und 
im  Weltganzen.  See  also  §  11  under  these  names,  and  under 
MORRIS;  and  §  8  under  GUYAU,  DEWEY,  MORRIS,  and  WILDE. 

//.  Miscellaneous.  —  English.  —  W.  H.  Beard,  Action  in 
Art  (New  York  :  1893.  The  author  thinks  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  laws  governing  action  will  guide  the  natural  feeling  of 
artists  who  represent  action ;  by  means  of  instantaneous  photo- 
graphs he  shows  what  actions  are  possible  of  representation); 
A.  L.  Frothingham,  Sr.,  Amer.  Jl.  of  Archaeology,  9  :  165  The 
Philosophy  of  Art  (traverses  the  whole  field  of  aesthetic,  using 
the  divisions:  i.  Personality  of  the  artist;  2.  Place  of  Art  in 
civilization  ;  3.  Philosophy  of  Art :  4.  Aesthetic  Dualism  ;  5.  Psy- 
chology of  Art;  6.  Art  Ideals  and  Standpoints  of  Thought; 


MISCELLANEOUS.  169 


7.  Definition  of  Art  —  "  the  universal  organon  for  the  repre- 
sentation of  the  total  ideality  of  existence  ";  8.  Mission  of  Art); 
A.  W.  Holmes-Forbes,  The  Science  of  Beauty,  an  Analytical 
Inquiry  (London  :  1889);  W.  Holman  Hunt,  New  Rev.  4:  420 
The  Ideals  of  Art;  G.  L.  Raymond,  Art  in  Theory,  an  Intro- 
duction to  the  Study  of  Comparative  Aesthetics  (New  York : 
1874.  The  preface  advances  the  curious  idea  that  art  is  not 
the  expression  of  the  age..  The  best  thing  in  the  book  is  an 
appendix  by  Professor  Baldwin,  who  defines  the  sense  of 
beauty  as  an  "  emotional  state  arising  from  progressive  psycho- 
physical  accommodation  to  mental  objects");  A.  Wolf,  The 
Truth  about  Beauty  (New  York:  1894)  ;  B.  Bosanquet,  E.  W. 
Cook,  and  D.  G.  Ritchie,  The  Relation  of  the  Fine  Arts  to 
one  another  (a  Symposium.  In  Proc.  of  the  Aristotelian  Soc., 
vol.  I,  No.  3,  pt.  2,  p.  98)  ;  P.  N.  Waggett,  Beauty  (in  Proc. 
of  Aristotelian  Soc.,  vol.  i,  No.  3,  pt.  2,  p.  129). 

French.  —  E.  Blemont,  Esthetique  de  la  Tradition  (Paris  : 
1891);  A.  de  Chambrun,  Une  etude  d'esthetique  (Paris  :  1891); 
Victor  Cherbuliez,  L'Art  et  la  Nature  (Paris  :  1892.  Repr. 
from  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  106:5,  242»  4^x»  721)  >  Maurice 
Griveau,  Les  elements  du  beau:  Analyse  et  synthese  des  faits 
esthetiques  d'apres  les  documents  du  langage  (Paris:  1893); 
E.  Ledereq,  Philosophic  de  1'enseignement  des  beaux-arts 
(Paris- Verviers  :  1891);  A.  Magnard,  Revue  de  Paris,  15  Sept. 
1894,  p.  424  La  synthese  des  arts;  E\  Rabier,  Le9ons  de  Phi- 
losophic-^6 e'd.  Paris  :  1888),  vol.  I,  Psychologic,  pp.  623-643 
Notions  d'esthetique,  pp.  644-653  De  1'art. 

The  article  Esthetique,  in  the  Grande  Encyclopedic,  is  divided 
into  four  parts  :  C.  Adams  contributes  a  history  of  aesthetics  ; 
Henri  d'Arges,  a  follower  of  Taine,  writes  on  the  plastic  arts 
and  literature  ;  Alf.  Ernst  writes  on  Music. 

German.  —  H.  Fleischer,  Ueber  die  Moglichkeit  e.  normativen 
Aesthetik  (Breslau  :  1891.  An  attack,  on  W.  Scherer);  Ernst 


170  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  9,  IV. 

Grosse,  Gegenwart,  40  :  70  Der  erste  Baustein  zu  einer  ethnolo 
gischen  Aesthetik  (with  reference  to  Hein's  Die  bildenden 
Kiinste  bei  d.  Dayaks  auf  Borneo.  Wien  :  1891);  E.  Grosse, 
Die  Anfange  der  Kunst  (Freiburg:  1894);  G.  Hauck,  Preuss. 
fahrb.  46  :  126  Ueber  die  Stellung  der  Mathematik  zur  Kunst 
und  Kunstwissenschaft ;  Anna  Holz,  Die  Kunst,  ihr  Wesen 
und  ihre  Gesetze  (Berlin:  1891.  'Modern'  in  tone,  but  not 
genuinely  scientific)  ;  H.  Kratz,  Aesthetik :  Grundziige  einer 
Lehre  von  der  Gefiihlen  (Giitersloh  :  1891);  H.  Marbach,  Das 
Mysterium  d.  Kunst  (Leipzig:  1890);  E.  Kiihnemann,  PJiilos. 
Monatshefte,  27  :  442  Bericht  iiber  neuere  Erscheinungen  aus 
dem  Gebiete  der  Geschichte  der  Aesthetik  ;  N.  M.  Pichtos,  Die 
Aesthetik  Aug.  W.  von  Schlegels  in  ihre;-  geschichtlichen 
Entwickelung  (Berlin  :  1893);  Alex.  Raciborski,  Die  naturwissen- 
schaftlichen  Grundlagen  unserer  aesthetische"n  Urtheile  (trans- 
lated from  the  Polish.  Of  slight  value) ;  H.  Stein,  Die  Entsteh- 
ung  der  neuern  Aesthetik  (Stuttgart:  1886);  O.  Voigt,  Das 
Ideal  der  Schonheit  und  Hasslichkeit  in  den  altfranzosischen 
Chansons  de  geste  (Marburg:  1891);  R.  Wahle,  Das  Ganze 
der  Philosophic  und  ihr  Ende  (Wien:  1894),  pp.  396-426  Das 
Schone  ;  K.  Werner,  Zur  Metaphysik  des  Schonen  (Sitznngsl>. 
d.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.  Wien:  1874,  p.  737);  B.  Wille,  Freie  Buhne 
f.  mod.  Lcben,  1891,  p.  467  Tendenz  in  d.  Poesie  (distinguishes 
four  methods  of  normative  aesthetics :  i.  The  postulating 
method,  "  I  want  so-and-so";  2.  The  metaphysical,  proceeding 
from  a  philosophical  system  ;  3.  The  authoritative,  taking  its 
law  from  the  work  of  an  artist ;  4.  The  psychological,  which 
observes  the  effects  of  the  work,  notes  uniformities  [laws]  of 
effect,  and  establishes  a  norm);  J.  Wohlgemuth,  Henry  Home's 
Aesthetik  (Rostock  :  1894);  Theobald  Ziegler,  Zeitschr.  f.  vergl^ 
Litteratiirgesch.,  N.F.  7:  113  Zur  Genesis  eines  aesthetischen 
Begriffs. 

Italian.  —  Salvatore  di  Pietro,  Sul  Bello  (Palermo:  1882); 
G.  S.  Ferrari,  Sul  Bello  (Verona:  1882);  Maria  Pilo,  Estetica 


MISCELLANEOUS.  171 


(Milano  :  1893)  ;  L.  Leynardi,  La  Psicologia  dell'  arte  nella 
Divina  Commedia  (Torino:  1894). 

A  review  of  Italian  writers  of  this  century  may  be  found  in 
K.  Werner's  Idealistische  Theorien  des  Schonen  in  der  italie- 
nischen  Philosophic  des  XIX.  Jahrhunderts  (Sitzungsb.  d.  Akad. 
Wiss.  Wien  :  1884,  p.  645),  and  in  L.  Ferri's  Essai  sur  1'his- 
toire  de  la  philosophic  en  Italic  au  XIX.  siecle  (1869). 

On  Dutch,  Danish,  and  Russian  aesthetics,  see  Wm.  Knight's 
Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  parts  I  and  II.1 

i  A  pamphlet  entitled  Aesthetics,  its  Problems  and  Literature  (by  F.  N.  Scott), 
published  at  Ann  Arbor  in  1890,  but  now  out  of  print,  has  been  drawn  upon  for  some 
portions  of  this  chapter. 


PART   II.  —  DEVELOPMENT   OF   ART. 

§   10.      STATEMENT   OF   PROBLEMS. 

THE  term  history  of  art  is  used  in  a  variety  of  senses.  In 
the  writings  of  one  author  it  means  biographies  of  painters ;  in 
the  writings  of  another,  descriptions,  chronologically  arranged, 
of  famous  monuments  of  architecture ;  a  third  employs  it  to 
designate  an  account  of  the  arts  of  form,  viz.  architecture, 
sculpture,  and  painting.  In  this  chapter  the  term  will  be 
employed  in  a  large  and  general  sense.  Art  we  shall  inter- 
pret broadly  to  mean  products  of  aesthetic  activity.  History 
of  Art  will  designate  a  record  of  the  development  of  this 
activity,  whenever  and  wherever  and  however  it  may  have 
taken  place.  The  histories  of  the  several  arts  will  be  con- 
ceived as  integral  parts  of  this  great  record,  segregated  for 
purposes  of  convenience. 

For  this  organic  conception  of  art-history  the  student  may 
consult  the  following  references :  Hegel's  Introduction  to  the 
Philosophy  of  Fine  Art,  in  Bosanquet's  Translation ;  Bosan- 
quet's  History  of  Aesthetic,  pp.  345-352;  Wm.  Knight's 
Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful,  pt.  II,  p.  68  ;  and  Miss  Paget's 
article  on  Comparative  Aesthetics  in  Contemp.  38:  300.  Of  a 
universal  history  of  art  such  as  this  view  demands,  Carriere's 
Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Culturentwickelung  und  die 
Ideale  der  Menschheit  is  the  unique  example. 

The  objections  to  the  organic  conception  should  be  con- 
sidered impartially.  See  Colvin's  article,  '  Fine  Arts,'  in  the 
Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed.,  for  a  clear  statement  of  the  reasons  why 
architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting  should  be  regarded  as  one 
group,  and  music  and  poetry  receive  independent  treatment. 


§  10,  /.]  ART  IN  GENERAL.  173 

It  will  be  convenient  to  consider  the  problems  of  art-evolu- 
tion under  two  principal  heads  :  (i)  problems  concerning  the 
history  of  art  in  general ;  (2)  problems  concerning  the  several 
species  or  sorts  of  arts.  Under  each  head  it  will  be  necessary 
to  consider  origins,  principles  and  stages  of  growth,  and 
influences. 

A  Art  in  Genera/.  A.  The  ORIGIN  OF  ART  should  receive  atten- 
tion first.  Under  what  circumstances,  in  response  to  what 
stimulus,  in  obedience  to  what  instinct,  did  art  first  make  its 
appearance  ?  The  following  hypotheses  should  be  carefully 
examined  : 

1.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  an  Imitative  Instinct.  —  The  oldest 
of  all  theories  of  art,  this  is  also  the  most  persistent,  having  been 
revived  recently  by  both  psychologists  and  sociologists.     For 
the  views  of    Plato  and  Aristotle,   see  the  references  in  §  7 
above,  pp.  140—150.     For  more  recent  views,  see  pp.  160-163. 
To  these  references  may  now  be  added  G.  Tarde's  La  logique 
sociale  (Paris  :  1895),  chap.  IX,  and  J.  M.  Baldwin's  Social  and 
Ethical  Interpretations  of  Mental  Development  (N.  Y. :  1897), 
pp.  147-153.     It  may  not  be  amiss  to  observe  that  by  adopt- 
ing this  view  of  the  origin  of  the  art-impulse,  the  student  does 
not  necessarily  commit  himself  to  an  imitation-theory  of  modern 
art. 

2.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  an  Instinct  for  Self-Expression.  — 
This  appears  under  a  great  variety  of  forms,  being  often  com- 
bined with  other  theories.     For  a  statement  of  the  point  of 
view,  see  Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic,  chap.  I,  and  the 
article  by  the  same  writer  in  Mind,  N.  s.  3:  153. 

3.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  the  Play-Impulse. — This  will  be 
recognized   as   the  view   of    Schiller,   which    Spencer   in   his 
Psychology  and  Grant  Allen  in   his  Physiological  Aesthetics, 
have  elaborated  into  a  system.     The  student  should  observe 
that  Spencer  combines  this  theory  with  the  theory  of  imitation. 


174  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§10,7. 

Play,  he  says,  is  the  result  of  superfluous  energy,  accumulated 
in  periods  of  inactivity  ;  but  it  is  the  instinct  for  imitation  that 
causes  the  expenditure  of  this  energy  to  take  the  form  of  mimic 
chasing,  fighting,  killing,  etc.,  leading  to  the  dance,  to  rude 
forms  of  drama,  and  to  the  beginnings  of  the  graphic  arts. 

4.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  an  Instinct  for  Order.  —  Under 
the  guise  of  rhythm,  measure,  proportion,  harmony,  and  other 
similar  terms,  this  principle  of  aesthetic  origins  has  been  a 
favorite.     By  Professor  Baldwin  Brown  it  is  ingeniously  united 
with  the  preceding.     There  are,  he  says,  "two  elements  that 
must  combine  for  the  production  of  even  the  simplest  form  of 
art.     (i)  There  must  exist  a  certain  raw  material  in  the  form 
of  a  movement,  an  act,  a  process,  which  may  be  the  mere 
instinctive  throwing  off  of  superfluous  nervous  energy,  or  may 
possess   more   or   less   pronounced  emotional   or   intellectual 
character,   and   (2)  this   material  must  be   disciplined  into  a 
certain  distinctness  of  form  by  the  principle  of  'Order'  till  it 
becomes  a  rational   product."     (The  Fine  Arts,  p.    12  ;  the 
idea  is  elaborated  in  pp.  10-19.) 

5.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  an  Instinct  to  Attract  Others. — This 
idea  is  used  by  Darwin  to  explain  the  colors  of  animals  and 
the  adornments  of  primitive  peoples.     For  references  to  the 
Origin  of  Species  and  Descent  of  Man,  see  supra,  p.  135.   The 
reader  should  also  consult  G.  Semper's  Der  Stil  in  den  techni- 
schen  und  tektonischen  Kiinsten  (2  vols.  Miinchen  :  1878-9), 
and  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts,  pp.  20,  21.     In  H.  R.  Marshall's 
Pain,  Pleasure,  and  Aesthetics,  the  theory  is  used  effectively 
and  given  wide  application. 

6.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  an  Attempt  to  Repel  or  Terrify.  — 
This  is  a  counterpart  of  the  preceding.     It  is  used,  in  connec- 
tion with  other  theories,  by  De  Greef,  Introd.  a  la  sociologie, 
vol.  II,  pp.  148-188.     Adopting  the  Spencerian  view  of  art  as 
the  outcome  of  superfluous  energy,  De  Greef  says  that  such 
energy  finds  expression  in  two  forms  :  (i)  in  the  decorations 


A."]  ART  IN  GENERAL.  175 

with  which  warriors  adorn  their  persons  to  render  them  more 
terrible  or  imposing  ;  (2)  in  the  pleasing  embellishment  of 
arms  and  utensils.  The  same  idea  is  advanced  by  Sully  in 
Mind,  N.  s.  2  :  404. 

7.  Art  is  the   Outgrowth  of  an  Impulse  to  Communicate. — 
This  theory  has  been  developed  mainly  in  its  application  to  the 
origin  of  language,  on  which  see  §  13.     From  writers  on  art 
it  has   not  received   the    attention   to   which    it   would    seem 
to  be  entitled.     The   student  will  do  well  to  give  it  serious 
consideration. 

8.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  Festal  or  Ceremonial  Celebrations. 
—  Properly   considered,   this  origin  is  secondary  rather  than 
primary.     The  festal  occasion  merely  supplies  a  channel  for 
the  overflow  of  some  one  of  the  impulses  enumerated  above. 
For  a  brief  treatment  of  this  view,  see  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts, 
p.  23. 

9.  Art  is  the  Outgrowth  of  a  Desire  to  Obtain  an  Image  of  the 
Intangible  or  Spiritual  Part  of  Man.  —  Seemingly  akin  to  the 
imitation-theory,  but  in  reality  very  different.     The  best  state- 
ment of  this  view  is  that  of  Professor  Giddings,  Principles  of 
Sociology  (N.  Y. :  1896),  pp.  247,  248  :  "There  was  one  class 
of  phenomena  in  which  a  living  self,  ordinarily  united  with  the 
body  though  separable  from  it,  seemed  to  the  primitive  man  to 
be  already  partly  separated  or  in  the  act  of  separation.     Walk- 
ing in  the  sunlight,  he  always  saw  a  shadow  that  moved  as  he 
moved  or  was  motionless  when  he  stood  still,  but  which  never 
completely  detached  itself  from  him.     What  could  this  be  but 
a   conscious   self,  belonging   to    the   bodily  self   and  usually 
merged  in  it,  but  capable  of  going  away,  to  live  alone  ?     Look- 
ing in  the  pool,  he  saw  the  shadow  self  more  distinctly,  and 
it  behaved  as  before.     When  he  called  aloud  to  his  comrades, 
his  voice   came  back  from  the  mountain.     His   double  then 
could  be  far  away  and  invisible,  and  yet  speak  and  preserve 
the  identity  of  his  proper  tone. 


176  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  10,  /. 

"Here  were  data  for  curious  inferences.  The  shadow  and 
the  echo  were  parts  of  one's  intangible  self.  Words,  then,  and 
names  must  be  a  part  of  the  spiritual  self,  and  to  know  a  man's 
name  must  be  to  have  a  part  of  his  essential  personality  in 
one's  possession  and  therefore  to  have  a  mysterious  control 
over  him.  This  belief  is  found  among  savages  in  every  quarter 
of  the  world  to-day.  Possibly  before  it  arose  some  one  had 
traced  with  a  stick  the  outlines  of  a  shadow  on  the  sand,  and 
rude  drawings  may  have  been  used  as  written  names.  Whether 
so  or  not,  the  thought  would  arise  that  to  have  an  image  of 
any  object  conceived  as  personal,  would  be  to  possess  an 
essential  part  of  that  object  and  to  have  its  name.  Words 
and  images  then  were  charms,  in  themselves,  and  mediately, 
as  names.  Through  words  and  images  one  could  come  into 
subtle  relations  with  the  very  spirit  of  another,  could  feel  the 
stirrings  of  a  spiritual  life  external  to  his  own.  The  aesthetic 
sense  was  born.  Here  were  the  vital  origins  of  writing  and 
literature,  and  of  all  the  plastic  arts  of  expression." 

See  also  supra,  p.  86,  D. 

One  fundamental  question  about  origins  should  not  be 
overlooked :  Is  art  something  inherent  and  ineradicable  in 
man's  nature,  so  that  in  some  form  it  will  be  found  at  all 
stages  of  his  development  ?  or,  on  the  other  hand,  is  it  an 
acquisition  which  he  makes  only  when  in  the  struggle  upward 
he  reaches  a  certain  point  ?  In  other  words,  is  there  in  man's 
history  a  pre-artistic  stage?  See  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts,  pp. 
3-11.  A  comparison  of  the  aesthetic  products  of  men  and 
animals  is  held  by  some  to  throw  light  upon  this  problem. 
See  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts,  pp.  12-16. 

B.  PRINCIPLE  OR  LAW  OF  DEVELOPMENT. — Principles  of  artis- 
tic evolution  may  be  roughly  classified  as:  (i)  speculative  or 
philosophical,  and  (2)  scientific. 

i.  Speculative  Principles.  — Under  this  head,  for  convenience, 
may  be  classed  all  schemes  of  ideal  evolution,  whether  simple 


£.]  ART  IN  GENERAL.  177 

or  elaborate.  As  an  example  of  a  simple  (and  formal)  scheme 
may  be  mentioned  that  which  Winckelmann  expounds  in  the 
opening  chapter  of  his  History  of  Art,  viz.  that  art  begins 
with  the  necessary,  culminates  in  the  beautiful,  and  closes 
with  the  superfluous. 

Of  elaborate  systems,  that  of  Hegel  is  the  most  eminent 
example.  Indeed  it  is  not  going  too  far  to  say  that,  positively 
or  negatively,  it  has  shaped  the  views  of  all  succeeding  writers 
upon  art.  It  behooves  the  student,  therefore,  to  make  him- 
self thoroughly  at  home  in  the  general  principles  of  Hegel's 
Aesthetik,  as  they  are  set  forth  in  the  Einleitung  (Introd.  to 
the  Philos.  of  Fine  Art,  Bosanquet's  Trans,  and  Appendix 
to  Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic).  Although  the  Hegelian 
law  of  progression  can  be  better  understood  from  Hegel's  own 
language  than  from  the  exposition  and  comments  of  his  critics, 
yet  help  may  be  derived  from  the  excellent  analysis  in  Bosan- 
quet's History  of  Aesthetic,  pp.  334-354,  especially  p.  335. 

The  student  should  not  accept  the  Hegelian  view  of  art- 
evolution  without  careful  scrutiny  of  the  bases  on  which  the 
conception  rests.  He  should  inquire  whether  Hegel  in  his 
theorizings  did  violence  to  the  artistic  materials  then  accessible 
to  him,  and  also  whether  his  theories  are  consistent  with  the 
facts  of  art-history  as  they  have  been  brought  out  by  later 
research.  A  question  of  no  less  interest  is  whether  according 
to  the  Hegelian  principle  art  at  the  present  day  is  in  a  period 
of  decline,  "  tending  to  pass  out  of  the  strictly  artistic  region  " 
and  "  not  possessing  in  modern  civilization  the  same  sole 
supremacy  that  it"  claimed  in  the  Periclean  age  or  in  the  first 
flush  of  the  Renascence."  On  this  question,  see  Von  Hart- 
mann's  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  p.  127,  Bosanquet's  History  of 
Aesthetic,  pp.  343,  344,  354,  and  Laprade's  Essais  de  Critique 
iddaliste. 

For  other  philosophic  principles  of  art-evolution,  see  HENRY, 
LOTZE,  CARRIERS,  and  VISCHER. 


178  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§10,7. 

2.  Scientific  Principles.  —  The  application  of  scientific  theories 
of  evolution  to  the  facts  of  art-history  has  resulted  in  a  variety 
of  principles,  which  may  be  roughly  classed  as  (a)  biological 
and  (/>)  social. 

a.  By  the  first  is  meant  a  principle  of  growth  more  or  less 
exactly  analogous  to  that  which  governs  the  life-history  of  a 
plant  or  animal.     According  to  this  analogy,  art  during  a  cer- 
tain period  of  years  is  born,  comes  to  the  fulness  of  its  strength, 
grows  old,  and  dies.     Although  in  one  form  or  another  this 
view  goes  back  to  very  ancient  times,  Winckelmann  was  perhaps 
the  first  to  employ  it  with  a  distinct  appreciation  of  its  value. 
"The  history  of  art,"  according  to  Winckelmann,  "is  intended 
to  show  the  origin,    progress,  change   and   downfall  of  art." 
(Preface  of  Winckelmann's  History  of  Ancient  Art,  p.   107.) 
How  the  principle  is  used  by  Winckelmann  the  student  should 
learn  for  himself  by  a  reading  of  the  History. 

A  semi-scientific  elaboration  of  this  idea  is  made  by  Mr. 
J.  A.  Symonds  in  an  essay  entitled  On  the  Application  of  Evolu- 
tionary Principles  to  Art  and  Literature,  published  in  Essays, 
Speculative  and  Suggestive  (Lond.  :  1890),  vol.  I,  p.  42.  With 
it  should  be  compared  Miss  Paget's  article  on  Comparative 
Aesthetics,  in  Contemp.  38:300. 

Reference  should  be  made  at  this  point  to  .the  famous 
theory  of  Taine,  which  also  rests  upon  a  biological  metaphor. 
The  object  of  Taine's  formula,  however,  is  not  so  much  to 
furnish  a  law  of  progression  as  to  account  for  the  condition  of 
art  at  any  given  epoch. 

Brunetiere  in  his  recent  work,  L 'evolution  des  genres  dans 
1'histoire  de  la  litterature,  supplementing  the  formula  of  Taine 
by  a  special  application  of  Spencer's  theory  of  evolution,  pro- 
poses to  establish  the  law  of  artistic  development  on  a  scientific 
foundation ;  but  his  theories,  if  sound,  are  as  yet  too  vague  to 
be  susceptible  of  criticism. 

b.  Social    theories    of    art-evolution,    so   far    as   they    have 


C.]  ART  IN  GENERAL.  179 

been  developed,  appear  to  be  of  two  kinds:  (i)  those  which 
simply  posit  a  connection  between  certain  stages  of  artistic 
development  and  corresponding  stages  of  social  development; 
(2)  those  which  endeavor  to  determine  the  place  and  function 
of  art  as  a  factor  in  the  evolution  of  society.  For  information 
on  these  types  of  theory  and  for  illustrations  of  them,  the 
student  may  consult  the  writings  referred  to  on  p.  168  above, 
and  the  works  of  Herder,  Comte,  Spencer,  Ward,  Guyau,  De 
Greef,  and  Giddings  (§  11).  See  especially  Ernst  Grosse's 
The  Beginnings  of  Art  (N.  Y.  :  1897),  chaps.  II  and  IX.  A 
satisfactory  treatment  of  art-evolution  from  the  social  point  of 
view  is,  however,  still  to  seek. 

In  investigating  scientific  principles  of  art-development  the 
student  should  keep  in  view  such  questions  as  the  following  : 
How  far  may  one  trust  an  analogy  with  any  other  set  of 
phenomena  to  reveal  the  essential  principle  of  artistic  growth  ? 
What  warrant  have  we  for  comparing  art  with  a  plant  or  an 
animal  ?  Why  should  we  not  seek  the  principle  of  development 
in  the  nature  of  art  itself  rather  than  in  things  which  resemble 
or  accompany  art  ? 

For  questions  touching  particularly  the  social  aspects  of  art, 
see  above,  pp.  86,  87. 

C.  STAGES  OF  GROWTH.  —  Hegel's  division  into  Symbolic, 
Classic,  and  Romantic  art,  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  into 
Eastern,  Greek,  and  Christian  art,  is  still  accepted  as  the 
simplest  and  most  practicable.  These  broad  divisions  have 
been  variously  subdivided.  Miss  Paget  in  Contemp.  38:  300 
proposes  to  divide  each  main  period  into  three  stages,  viz. 
heroic,  dramatic,  idyllic.  Most  of  the  divisions  proposed  by 
others  are  chronological,  as  for  example,  the  division  of  Chris- 
tian Art  into  Early  Christian,  Renaissance,  and  Modern.  They 
may  or  may  not  be  based  upon  a  philosophical  or  scientific 
theory  of  art-evolution. 


180  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  10,  //. 

If  the  student  is  able  to  make  extended  research  he  will 
find  it  profitable  to  inquire  into  the  correspondence  of  the 
stages  of  art-development  in  different  and  isolated  countries, 
—  in  Egypt  and  in  Chaldea,  for  example.  The  labors  of 
Perrot  and  Chipiez  have  made  the  sources  for  such  studies 
easily  accessible. 

D.  INFLUENCES.  — The  student  should  inquire  as  to  the  influ- 
ence of  climate,  religion,  science,  industry,  morals,  education,  and 
politics  upon  the  growth  of  art.  See  TAINE,  HENNEQUIN,  and 
GROSSE.  He  may  also  inquire  how  the  art  of  one  country  has  in 
general  affected  the  art  of  another.  See  MULLER,  and  PERROT 
and  CHIPIEZ.  How  the  art  of  any  single  nation  has  been 
influenced  by  the  materials  at  hand  and  by  local  customs,  as, 
for  example,  the  art  of  Greece  by  the  presence  of  marble  in 
her  soil  and  love  of  athletics  in  the  minds  of  her  citizens,  is 
also  a  profitable  inquiry.  See  WALDSTEIN  and  WINCKELMANN. 

//.  The  Several  Arts.  —  A.  With  reference  to  the  origin 
of  the  several  arts,  the  following  theses  should  be  examined  : 
(i)  All  art  was  originally  one,  and  the  several  arts  have  come 
into  being  by  a  process  of  differentiation.  (2)  The  arts  of  form, 
viz.  architecture,  sculpture,  and  music,  were  originally  com- 
bined; the  other  arts  had  an  independent  origin.  (3)  Each 
art  arose  in  independence  of  every  other.  (4)  The  arts  arose 
in  different  ways  and  at  different  relative  periods  in  different 
countries.  See  SPENCER,  COLVIN,  and  KNIGHT.  On  the  origin 
of  architecture,  consult  Liibke's  History  of  Art,  chap.  I,  Liibke's 
and  Fergusson's  histories  of  Architecture,  and  Brown's  The 
Fine  Arts,  pp.  24-33.  On  the  origin  of  sculpture,  see  Liibke's 
History  of  Sculpture,  and  Grant  Allen's  Physiological  Aesthet- 
ics, pp.  232-242.  On  the  origin  of  painting  and  the  graphic 
arts  generally,  see  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts,  pp.  19-24,  Miss 
Simcox's  Primitive  Civilizations,  vol.  I,  p.  4,  Middleton's  article, 


B.}  THE  SEVERAL   ARTS.  181 

'Schools  of  Painting,'  in  the  Encycl.  Brit,  gth  ed.,  Lubke's 
History  of  Art,  vol.  I,  p.  243  et  seq.,  Grant  Allen's  Physiological 
Aesthetics,  pp.  222-232,  and  especially  Hamerton's  Drawing 
and  Engraving  (Lond. :  1892:  repr.  from  the  Encycl.  Brit., 
9th  ed.),  pp.  6-18.  For  an  interesting  controversy  regarding 
the  origin  of  music,  see  Darwin's  Descent  of  Man,  vol.  II,  p.  336, 
Spencer's  essays  On  the  Origin  and  Function  of  Music  (Essays, 
Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative),  and  On  the  Origin  of 
Music  (Mind,  October,  1890),  Gurney's  Power  of  Sound,  chap. 
XXII,  J.  F.  Rowbotham's  essay  on  the  Origin  of  Music  (iqth 
Century,  October,  1880),  and  Richard  Wallaschek's  Primitive 
Music  (Lond.  :  1893).  The  origins  of  poetry  and  prose  will 
be  discussed  in  following  chapters. 

On  the  origin  of  all  of  these  arts  and  also  of  dancing,  see  the 
chapters  on  the  general  arts  in  Wm.  Knight's  Philosophy  of 
the  Beautiful,  pt.  II,  pp.  85-250. 

B.   PRINCIPLE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  AND  STAGES  OF  GROWTH.  —  For 

the  sake  of  brevity  these  topics  may  here  be  considered  together. 
The  student  should  inquire  whether  the  various  arts  in  their 
development  pass  through  similar  stages,  whether  for  example 
the  history  of  architecture  in  its  principal  features  has  been  the 
same  as  the  history  of  sculpture,  whether  in  painting  there  is  a 
sequence  corresponding  to  the  drum,  pipe,  and  lyre  stages  in 
music.  He  may  also  compare  the  course  of  any  one  art  as  it 
has  developed  in  different  countries,  e.g.,  the  history  of  sculpture 
in  Egypt  and  Assyria.  The  stages  of  evolution  in  the  minor 
arts,  such  as  engraving  and  ceramics,  may  be  profitably  com- 
pared with  the  stages  of  evolution  in  the  greater  arts.  See  the 
references  cited  above,  and  also  J.  F.  Rowbotham's  History  of 
Music  (Lond.:  1885). 

An  interesting  though  difficult  question  is  as  to  an  art's 
seeming  disappearance.  When  an  art  declines  and  passes 
away,  does  it,  we  may  ask,  really  die  as  a  plant  dies  ?  Is  it, 


182  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  11. 

not  rather  transformed  into  some  other  species,  and  is  not 
the  art-germ  in  changing  shapes  thus  perpetuated  forever? 
Ingenious  though  unsatisfactory  speculations  touching  this 
question  will  be  found  in  Brunetiere's  L'evolution  des  genres 
dans  1'histoire  de  la  litterature.  Consult  also  Fergusson's 
History  of  Architecture. 

The  question  has  also  been  raised,  especially  in  the  discus- 
sion of  the  Wagnerian  Opera,  whether  through  the  modern  dif- 
ferentiation of  artists  art  has  advanced  or  retrograded.  See 
Colvin's  '  Fine  Arts '  in  the  Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed. 

The  part  played  by  convention  in  the  development  of  certain 
of  the  arts  is  worthy  of  careful  consideration.  On  the  conven- 
tions of  architecture  and  sculpture,  see  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts, 
pp.  244-258. 

C.  INFLUENCES.  —  The  student  should  inquire  regarding  the 
influence  which  one  art  exerts  upon  another,  such  as  the  influ- 
ence of  dancing  on  sculpture,  of  the  textile  arts  on  painting. 
See  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts,  pp.  23,  46,  50,  52,  75.  He  may 
also  ask  how  the  history  of  an  art  in  one  country  has  operated 
upon  the  same  art  in  another  country,  either  contemporaneously 
or  successively.  See  Perrot  and  Chipiez,  Introd.  to  History  of 
Ancient  Egyptian  Art.  The  influence  of  the  environment,  and 
of  movements  in  religion,  science,  education,  etc.,  upon  the 
several  arts  is  a  profitable  question  for  discussion.  See  in 
general,  RUSKIN,  TAINE,  MACAULAY,  WALDSTEIN. 

The  influence  of  guilds,  schools,  factions,  academies,  prizes, 
and  publications  devoted  to  art,  upon  the  development  of  the 
several  arts,  awaits  the  attention  of  the  investigator. 

§    11.      REFERENCES. 

BEGG,  W.  P.     The  Development  of  Taste,  and  other  Studies 
in  Aesthetics.     Glasgow  :   1887. 
See  §  8. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  183 

BROWN,  B.     The  Fine  Arts. 

Especially  useful  in  the  study  of  the  origin  and  connection 
of  the  arts. 

CARRIERE,  M.  Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Cultur- 
entwickelung  und  die  Ideale  der  Menschheit.  5  vols. 
Leipz. :  1871-73. 

CARRIERS,  M.     Die  sittliche  Weltordnung.     Leipz. :   1877. 

PP-  339-354  Die  Kunst. 

Following  the  line  of  thought  which  he  had  so  eloquently 
expressed  in  his  Religious  Discourses,  that  of  a  God  self-con- 
scious and  eternally  revealing  himself  in  Nature,  Carriere,  in 
his  celebrated  work  on  'Art  in  its  Connection  with  the  Develop- 
ment of  Civilization,  traces,  from  the  point  of  view  of  Ideal- 
realism,  the  development  of  the  idea  of  the  Beautiful  and  its 
gradual  realization  in  life  and  art.  Vol.  I  treats  of  The  Begin- 
ning of  Civilization,  and  the  Oriental  antiquity  in  Religion, 
Poetry,  and  Art;  vol.  II  of  Greece  and  Rome  in  their  Religion, 
their  Wisdom,  Poetry,  and  Art;  vol.  Ill  (i)  of  Christian  An- 
tiquity and  Mohammedanism;  vol.  Ill  (2)  of  the  Middle  Ages 
in  Europe  ;  vol.  IV  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Reformation  ; 
vol.  V,  of  the  Period  of  the  Ascendancy  of  Spirit.  For  com- 
ment, see  article  in  Bib.  Sac.  18:  227. 

COLVIN,  S.     Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed.     '  Fine  Arts.' 

Pt.  Ill  of  this  excellent  article  is  upon  the  History  of  Art. 
It  is  principally  an  analysis  and  criticism  of  the  views  of  Hegel, 
Spencer,  and  Taine. 

COMTE,  AUG.  The  Positive  Philosophy.  Trans,  by  Harriet 
Martineau.  2  vols.  N.  Y.  :  1854. 

Vol.  II,  p.  195  Relation  of  Fetichism  to  the  Fine  Arts;  pp.  213- 
220  Polytheistic  Art;  pp.  297-298  Catholic  Art;  pp.  392-405 
Aesthetic  Development ;  p.  432  Modern  Art ;  pp.  454-455 
Recent  Aesthetic  Progress;  pp.  559-561  The  Aesthetic  Action. 


184  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  11 

According  to  the  social  philosophy  of  Auguste  Comte,  man 
in  his  evolution  from  a  lower  to  a  higher  plane  passes  through 
three  stages  or  'states.'  There  is  first  the  theological  state, 
within  which  are  the  three  phases,  fetichism,  polytheism, 
monotheism  ;  then  the  metaphysical  state ;  finally  the  positive 
state.  In  each  of  these  periods,  art  as  "an  ideal  and  sympa- 
thetic representation  of  human  sentiment,  —  personal,  domestic, 
and  social,"  conforms  to  the  stage  of  civilization.  "  The  best 
way,  therefore,  of  ascertaining  its  state  at  any  particular  time 
is,  not  by  regarding  it  by  itself,  but  by  looking  at  those  charac- 
teristics of  modern  civilization  with  which  it  is  incorporated,  to 
ascertain  its  share  in  them,  and  observe  what  new  properties  it 
may  have  disclosed  "  (p.  218).  This  Comte  attempts  to  do  in 
the  passages  indicated  above. 

The  results  of  this  method  of  treatment  are  highly  interest- 
ing and  valuable,  and  will  always  be  suggestive  to  those  who 
are  seeking  to  establish  a  theory  of  art-evolution  upon  a 
sociological  basis  ;  but  at  the  same  time,  it  must  be  remarked 
that  Comte's  sweeping  generalizations  rest  upon  data  which  he 
appears  not  always  to  have  verified.  It  would  be  a  mistake, 
therefore,  for  the  student  to  accept  his  conclusions  and  especially 
to  use  them  as  a  basis  for  further  investigation,  without  sub- 
jecting them  to  careful  scrutiny. 

CROWE,  J.  A.  and  CAVALCASELLE,  G.  B.  A  New  History  of 
Painting  in  Italy  from  the  Second  to  the  Sixteenth  Century. 
3  vols.  Lond.  :  1864-66. 

CROWE,  J.  A.  and  CAVALCASELLE,  G.  B.  A  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  North  Italy.  .  .  .  From  the  Fourteenth  to  the 
Sixteenth  Century.  2  vols.  Lond. :  1871-74. 

The  authors  of  A  New  History  of  Painting  in  Italy  have 
added  to  the  information  furnished  by  Vasari  and  Lanzi  much 
that  has  been  drawn  from  the  direct  comparison  of  works  of 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  185 

art  with  each  other  and  much  that  has  hitherto  been  buried  in 
rare  and  inaccessible  archives.  Towards  forming  a  theory  of 
the  evolution  of  art  in  general,  perhaps  the  following  chapters 
will  most  contribute  :  vol.  I,  chap.  I,  Art  to  the  Close  of  the  Sixth 
Century;  chap.  II,  Italian  Art  from  the  Seventh  to  the  Thirteenth 
Century ;  chap.  V,  Decline  of  Painting  in  Central  Italy  in  the 
Thirteenth  Century  ;  chap.  XII,  Giotto's  Influence  on  the  Sculp- 
tors of  his  Time;  chap.  XXVI,  Religious  Art  in  Convents;  vol. 

II,  chap.   II,   Fundamental   Difference  between   Sienese   and 
Florentine  Art;  also  chaps.  VI,  VIII,  XI,  XIII-XVII;   vol. 

III,  chap.   Ill,  Decline  of  the   School  of  Siena ;    chap.  IV, 
Rise  of  the  Perugian  School. 

Crowded  with  information  as  is  the  History  of  Painting  in 
North  Italy,  it  is  not  so  suggestive  of  theories  as  directly  to 
benefit  the  student. 

EASTLAKE,  SIR  C.  L.  [ed.]  Handbook  of  Painting.  The 
Italian  Schools.  Based  on  the  Handbook  of  Kugler. 
4th  ed.  Revised  ...  by  Lady  Eastlake.  2  vols.  Lond. : 
1874. 

In  the  preface  to  this  work  will  be  found  a  brief  but  some- 
what useful  reminder  of  the  dependence  of  art  upon  religion, 
social  and  political  relations,  circumstances  of  climate  and  of 
place,  the  character  of  a  nation,  a  school,  and  an  individual. 
Otherwise  the  scope  of  this  work  is  beside  the  present  purpose  • 
of  the  student. 

FERGUSSON,  JAMES.  A  History  of  Architecture  in  all  Countries, 
from  the  Earliest  Times  to  the  Present  Day.  2d  ed. 
4  vols.  Lond.:  1874. 

In  vol.  I,  pp.  52-84,  of  this  standard  work  will  be  found  an 
interesting  chapter  on  ethnography  as  applied  to  architecture. 
The  main  conclusions,  so  far  as  concerns  the  principle  of 
artistic  development,  appear  in  brief  in  the  following  sentence  : 


186  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§11. 

"  Progress  among  men,  as  among  the  animals,  seems  to  be 
achieved  not  so  much  by  advances  made  within  the  limits  of 
the  groups,  as  by  the  supersession  of  the  less  finely  organized 
beings  by  those  of  a  higher  class  ;  —  and  this,  so  far  as  our 
knowledge  extends,  is  accomplished  neither  by  successive  crea- 
tions, nor  by  the  gradual  development  of  one  species  out  of 
another,  but  by  the  successive  prominent  appearances  of 
previously  developed,  though  partially  dormant  creations." 

GAUCKLER,  PH.     Le  beau  et  son  histoire. 

A  chapter  on  the  Influence  of  Religion,  pp.  60-78,  con- 
tains original  ideas  regarding  the  relation  between  the  develop- 
ment of  art  and  the  development  of  religious  thought.  Other 
passages  bearing  upon  this  and  cognate  topics  are  scattered 
through  the  work. 

GREEF,  GUILLAUME  DE.     Introduction  a  la  sociologie.     2  vols. 
Brussels  et  Paris  :  1886-89. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  148-188,  Fonctions  et  organes  artistique. 
A  work  of  high  standing.  The  chapter  on  the  social  aspects 
of  art,  though  less  satisfactory  than  other  portions  of  the  work, 
is  valuable  by  reason  of  its  suggestiveness.  Art  for  De  Greef, 
as  for  Spencer  and  Allen,  is  the  product  of  superfluous  energy, 
finding  vent,  at  times  of  leisure,  in  simulated  and  idealized 
activity.  The  part  which  it  has  played,  in  its  various  forms, 
in  the  growth  of  the  individual  and  the  evolution  of  society,  is 
sketched,  if  too  rapidly,  yet  clearly  and  firmly. 

GROSSE,  ERNST.     The  Beginnings  of  Art.     N.  Y.  :  1897. 

An  attempt  to  find  a  scientific  basis  for  the  theory  and 
history  of  art.  Grosse  connects  the  rise  of  art  with  methods 
of  securing  food  and  makes  the  form  of  production  depend  on 
geographical  and  meteorological  conditions.  Of  especial  inter- 
est is  his  distinction  of  social  art,  belonging  to  primitive 
stages,  and  individual  art,  belonging  to  later  stages. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  187 

GUYAU,  M.-J.     L'Art  au  point  de  vue  sociologique. 

See  §8. 

The  author  does  not  deal  directly  with  the  development  of 
art,  but  by  connecting  in  his  theory  the  growth  of  aesthetic 
feeling  with  the  growth  of  the  social  instinct,  he  suggests  to 
students  of  art-evolution  an  interesting  line  of  research. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.     WERKE.      18  vols.     Berlin  :  1838-48.     Bd. 
X,  Theile  1-3,  Aesthetik. 

The  importance  of  this  work  has  already  been  affirmed  in 
§  10.  It  is  at  once  the  most  elaborate  and  the  most  profound 
of  all  attempts  to  philosophize  about  the  history  of  art.  Nor 
is  it  all  pure  speculation.  Its  conclusions  are  based  upon 
observations  both  wide  and  minute,  and  the  keenness  of  Hegel's 
criticisms  upon  particular  types  and  specimens  of  art  is  acknowl- 
edged by  all  who  have  read  them. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Aesthetik,  and  in  some  respects  the 
most  interesting  part,  is  still  untranslated,  but  those  portions 
which  deal  especially  with  the  principles  of  the  history  of  art 
are  now  accessible  in  English.  The  following  references  bear 
especially  upon  the  historical  aspect :  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  pp.  387- 
547  ;  vol.  II,  pp.  3-240  (Bosanquet's  Trans.,  pp.  133-156,  Ked- 
ney's  Exposition,  pp.  114-150,  Hastie's  Trans.,  pp.  34-46,  and 
the  translations  by  Bryant  and  Miss  Longwell  in  /.  Spec.  Philos.}. 
Notice  Hegel's  application  of  the  terms  Symbolic,  Classic,  and 
Romantic  to  the  particular  arts  as  well  as  to  the  stages  of  Art, 
and  his  reasons  therefor.  In  connection  with  the  original 
should  be  read  the  exposition  and  comment  in  Bosanquet's 
History  of  Aesthetic.  In  the  course  of  an  article  on  Ruskin, 
No.  Am.  84 :  385,  Prof.  Everett  presents  a  clear  exposition  of 
Hegel's  theory  of  Art-evolution. 

HENRY.  CH.     Rev.  Philos.  22  :    81.     La  loi  devolution  de  la 
sensation  musicale. 


188  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§11. 

Evolution  has  taken  place  from  the  objective  to  the  subjec- 
tive side  of  experience.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  sensa- 
tions of  pitch  among  the  Greeks-  were  given  an  objective 
interpretation,  being  associated  with  the  distance  of  the 
sonorous  body  from  the  hearer  ;  whereas  in  modern  times 
pitch  is  associated  with  the  purely  subjective  conception  of 
upward  and  downward  direction. 

LANZI,  L.  The  History  of  Painting  in  Italy :  from  the  period 
of  the  Revival  of  the  Fine  Arts  to  the  end  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century.  Trans,  by  Thos.  Roscoe.  6  vols. 
Lond. :  1828. 

The  author's  purpose  was  threefold  :  to  mark  the  successive 
stages  of  the  history  of  painting  in  Italy,  to  contribute  to  the 
advancement  of  the  art,  and  to  facilitate  the  study  of  the 
different  styles  of  painting.  His  treatment  of  the  subject  is 
captivating,  and  in  so  far  as  he  has  indicated  the  relation 
between  the  political  and  social  history  of  Italy  and  the  art  of 
the  country  he  is  of  advantage  to  the  student  of  aesthetics. 
Many  questions  pertinent  to  the  evolution  of  art  are  touched 
upon  in  Lanzi's  preface  to  vol.  L  Since  Lanzi  died  in  1810, 
it  will  be  advisable  for  the  student  to  revise  his  statements 
with  the  aid  of  more  recent  investigation. 

LOTZE,  H.     Microcosmus.     Trans,  by  E.   Hamilton  and  E.  E. 
C.  Jones.     2  vols.     Edinb.  :  1885. 
Vol.  II,  pp.  398-443,  Beauty  and  Art. 

An  account  of  the  characteristic  forms  of  beauty  and  art  in 
ancient  and  modern  times.  Readable  but  not  always  trust- 
worthy. 

LAPRADE,  VICTOR  DE.  Essais  de  Critique  iddaliste.  Paris: 
1882. 

Pp.  49-77  De  1'idee  de  progres  appliquee  a  1'histoire  des  arts ; 
pp.  337-365  Les  origines  du  realisme. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  189 

In  these  entertaining  essays  the  author  presents  views  of 
the  development  of  art  based  upon  the  theories  of  Hegel. 
Starting  from  Hegel's  statement  that  the  age  of  art  is  past,  he 
arrives  at  the  conclusion  that  the  idea  of  illimitable  progress, 
though  illustrated  in  other  branches  of  human  activity,  is 
wholly  inapplicable  to  the  arts.  Art  is  destined  to  run  its 
course  ;  when  its  season  is  past  a  new  development  is  incon- 
ceivable. Science  can  furnish  it  means  of  facile  execution  and 
of  rapid  multiplication  of  copies,  but  not  a  single  principle  of 
original  creation  or  veritable  progress.  The  Parthenon,  the 
cathedrals,  the  music  of  Beethoven  are  the  highest  ideals  in 
art.  To  surpass  them  is  impossible.  Laprade  constructs  a 
"ladder  of  the  arts,"  which  he  epigrammatizes  as  follows: 
"  God  is  architectural,  the  half-god,  hero,  or  saint  is  sculptural, 
man  is  pictorial,  external  nature  is  musical."  At  the  present 
time,  he  says,  through  the  pursuit  of  realism,  the  arts  are 
breaking  up  into  little  genres;  nature  is  vanquishing  man.  (Cf. 
Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  p.  343  ff.,  esp.  the  footnote  on 
P-  344-) 

MACAULAY,  T.  B.  Critical,  Historical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  208-211  (Milton)  Poetry  and  Civilization;  pp.  325-351 
(Dryden)  Laws  of  Progress  of  the  Fine  Arts.  See  also  Index 
under  Art. 

MIDDLETON,  J.   H.     '  Schools  of  Painting.'     In  Encycl.  Brit., 
9th  ed. 

A  sketch  of  the  development  of  painting  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present. 

MULLER,  C.  O.     Ancient  Art  and  its  Remains.    With  additions 
by  F.  G.  Welcker.     Trans,  by  John  Leitch.     Lond. :  1852. 

As  the  first  general  history  of  ancient  art  to  appear  in 
Germany,  this  work  may  be  said  to  have  laid  the  foundation 
for  a  comparative  study  of  art.  Miiller  understood  and  pre- 


190  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§11. 

sented  with  great  clearness  the  connection  between  the  art  of 
Greece  and  the  art  of  Rome ;  but  since  in  his  time  the  study  of 
Oriental  art  was  still  in  its  infancy,  he  failed  to  comprehend, 
or  at  least  did  not  present,  the  intimate  connection  which  exists 
between  Greek  art  and  the  art  of  more  ancient  civilizations. 

OVERBECK,  J.  Geschichte  der  griechischen  Plastik.  3.  Aufl. 
2  vols.  Leipz.  :  1881-82. 

Overbeck  esteems  it  the  duty  of  the  historian  of  art  not  to 
accumulate  disconnected  facts,  nor  to  indulge  the  vice  of  arbi- 
trary classification,  but  "  to  seek  in  the  multiplicity  of  works  of 
art  that  which  is  universal  and  conformable,  for  it  is  only  by 
such  method  that  he  can  attain  to  a  comprehension  of  the 
inherent  continuity  of  development."  The  Einleitung  is  well 
worth  reading  in  its  entirety. 

PAGET,  VIOLET  (Vernon  Lee).  Contemp.  38  :  300,  Compara- 
tive Aesthetics. 

Follows  Hegel  in  calling  the  grand  divisions  of  art-history 
Symbolic,  Classic,  and  Romantic  Art,  but  makes  under  each 
division  three  subdivisions  corresponding  to  the  rise,  the  cul- 
mination, and  the  decline  of  the  art-impulse.  These  subdivi- 
sions she  terms  the  heroic,  the  dramatic,  and  the  idyllic  stages. 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.  History  of  Art  in  Ancient  Egypt. 
2  vols.  Lond.  :  1883. 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.  A  History  of  Art  in  Chaldea 
and  Assyria.  2  vols.  Trans,  by  W.  Armstrong.  Lond. : 
1884. 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.  A  History  of  Ancient  Art  in 
Phoenicia  and  its  Dependencies.  2  vols.  Lond.  :  1885. 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.  A  History  of  Ancient  Art  in 
Sardinia,  Judaea,  Syria,  and  Asia  Minor.  Lond.  :  1890. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  191 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.     A  History  of  Ancient  Art  in 
Persia.     Lond.  :   1892. 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.     A  History  of  Ancient  Art  in 
Phrygia,  Lydia,  Caria,  and  Lycia.     Lond.  :   1892. 

PERROT,  G.,  and  C.  CHIPIEZ.     A   History  of   Mycenian  Art. 
2  vols.      Lond.  :    1894. 

Both  in  substance  and  in  form  these  are  works  of  the  highest 
order  of  merit.  The  several  volumes  which  are  enumerated 
above  are  to  be  regarded  as  a  single  work  having  for  its  aim 
"to  trace  the  cause  of  the  great  plastic  evolution  which  cul- 
minated in  the  age  of  Pericles  and  came  to  an  end  in  that  of 
Marcus  Aurelius."  In  the  Introduction  to  the  volumes  on 
Ancient  Egyptian  Art,  M.  Perrot  speaks  out  boldly  for  the 
evolutionary  point  of  view  in  the  study  of  art.  He  asserts  that 
the  conception  of  an  isolated  Greek  art  held  by  Karl  Miiller 
and  others  is  no  longer  tenable  :  "  Our  age  is  the  age  of  history  ; 
it  interests  itself  above  all  others  in  the  sequence  of  social 
phenomena  and  their  organic  development,  an  evolution  which 
Hegel  explained  by  the  laws  of  thought.  It  would  be  more 
than  absurd  in  these  days  to  accept  Greek  art  as  a  thing  self- 
created  in  its  full  perfection,  without  attempting  to  discover 
and  explain  the  slow  and  careful  stages  by  which  it  arrived  at 
its  apogee  in  the  Athens  of  Pericles."  He  also  attacks  and 
skillfully  confutes  the  popular  theory  that  Egyptian  art  under- 
went no  change.  On  this  point  see  the  valuable  chapter 
entitled,  "  That  Egyptian  Art  did  not  escape  the  law  of  change, 
and  that  its  history  may  therefore  be  written  "  (Egyptian  Art, 
p.  70). 

REBER,  F.  VON.     History  of  Ancient  Art.     Trans,  and  augm. 
by  J.  T.  Clarke.     Lond.  :   1883. 

This  handbook  is  one  of  the  most  available  for  the  student 
of  Ancient  Art.  Its  trustworthiness  is  guaranteed  by  the  fact  of 


192  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§11. 

von  Reber's  original  authorship  ;  its  usefulness  as  a  compend 
of  the  results  of  recent  investigations  is  enhanced  by  the  col- 
laboration of  Mr.  Clarke,  who  was  director  of  the  explorations 
at  Assos.  The  discoveries  made  at  Olympia  and  Pergamon  are 
considered.  The  scope  of  the  work,  embracing  art  in  Egypt, 
Chaldea,  Babylonia,  Assyria,  Persia,  Phoenicia,  Palestine,  and 
Asia  Minor,  Hellas,  Etruria,  and  Rome,  would  render  it  invalu- 
able to  the  student,  had  only  the  author  or  translator  seen  fit 
to  interpolate  an  occasional  chapter  containing  criticisms  upon 
the  art  as  a  whole  of  any  one  of  these  countries,  or  a  comparison 
of  the  art  of  one  country  with  that  of  another. 

RUSKIN,  J.     Stones  of  Venice. 

A  principal  thesis  of  this  work  is  that  corruption  of  art 
accompanies  and  corresponds  to  degradation  in  religion  and 
public  morality. 

SCHAFFLE,  A.  E.  F.  Bau  und  Leben  des  Socialen  Korpers. 
4  vols.  Tubingen:  1881. 

Contains  a  large  amount  of  interesting  fact  and  speculation 
on  the  history  of  art  and  its  relation  to  the  development  of  the 
social  organism.  See  especially  vol.  Ill,  p.  129  ff.  For  the 
sections  bearing  upon  art,  consult  the  Index  under  Kunst. 

SCHNAASE,  KARL  J.  F.  Geschichte  der  bildenden  Kiinste. 
2te  verb.  u.  verm.  Auflage.  Unter  Mitwirkung  des 
Verfassers  bearb.  von  C.  von  Liitzow.  8  vols.  Diissel- 
dorf  u.  Stuttgart  :  1866-79. 

This  formidable  work  attempts  to  survey  the  history  of  art 
from  its  origin  to  the  present  century  in  all  important  countries, 
except  China  and  Japan.  The  author's  hold  upon  the  evolu- 
tionary thread  is  not  very  firm,  and  at  times,  casting  aside  this 
clue,  he  follows  the  uncertain  guidance  of  chronology  or  mere 
geographical  association. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  193 

SPENCER,  H.      First  Principles. 

Chaps.  XIV-XVI  The  Law  of  Evolution. 

The  progress  of  the  arts  and  their  differentiation  is  used  to 
illustrate  the  law  of  evolution. 

SPENCER,  H.     The  Principles  of  Sociology.     3d  ed.     2  vols. 
N.  Y.  :   1893. 

This  work  is  cited  for  the  sake  of  one  brief  passage  on 
p.  43 1  of  vol.  I,  in  which  Spencer  brings  the  study  of  art  within 
the  scope  of  sociology. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets.     First  Series. 
Pp.  219-222  Law  of  Sequence  in  Art. 

The  law  of  inevitable  progression  in  art  is  "  from  the  severe 
and  animated  embodiment  of  an  idea  to  the  conscious  elabora- 
tion of  merely  aesthetic  motives  and  brilliant  episodes."  Three 
stages  of  progress  are  distinguished,  corresponding  to  those 
described  by  Miss  Paget  in  her  article  on  Comparative  Aesthet- 
ics (tj.  v.  supra).  The  law  is  illustrated  from  poetry,  sculpture, 
and  painting. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     The  Renaissance  in  Italy. 
Vol.  II,  pp.  395-401,  The  Catholic  Reaction. 

A  brief  statement  of  the  principles  of  art-development.  The 
idea  is  the  same  as  in  the  preceding  work. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Essays,  Speculative  and  Suggestive.     2  vols. 
Lond.  :  1890. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  42-83,  On  the  Application  of  Evolutionary  Principles 
to  Art  and  Literature. 

The  course  of  the  writer's  thought  is  the  same  as  in  the 
passage  from  the  Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets,  referred  to  above, 
but  the  idea  is  elaborated  with  greater  fulness,  and  illustrated 
from  the  drama  and  from  architecture.  The  following  sentences 


194  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§11. 

contain  the  substance  of  Mr.  Symond's  theory  :  "  A  type  of  art, 
once  started,  must,  according  to  my  view,  fulfill  itself,  and 
bring  to  light  the  structure  which  its  germ  contained  potentially. 
As  this  structure  is  progressively  evolved,  it  becomes  impossible 
to  return  upon  the  past.  No  individual  man  in  the  age  of 
Scopas  could  produce  work  of  Pheidian  quality,  albeit  his  brain 
throbbed  with  the  pulse  of  Marathonian  patriotism.  Original- 
ity has  to  be  displayed  by  eliciting  what  is  still  left  latent  in 
the  partially  exhausted  type.  To  create  a  new  type,  while  the 
old  one  is  existent,  baffles  human  ingenuity,  because  the  type 
is  an  expression  of  the  people's  mind,  and  has  its  roots  deep 
down  in  the  stuff  of  national  character.  .  .  .  After  meridian 
accomplishment,  a  progressive  deterioration  of  the  type  becomes 
inevitable  and  cannot  be  arrested"  (pp.  76,  77). 

TAINE,  H.     History  of  English  Literature.     Trans,  by  H.  Van 
Laun.     4  vols.     Lond.  :   1883. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  1-36,  Conditions  of  Literary  Development. 

TAINE,  H.     The  Ideal  in  Art.     Trans,  by  J.  Durand.     N.  Y.  : 
1869. 

TAINE,  H.     The  Philosophy  of  Art.     Lond.  :    1867. 

Taine's  formula  of  the  race,  the  moment,  and  the  environment 
is  most  clearly  expounded  in  the  Introduction  to  his  History  of 
English  Literature.  For  criticisms,  see  references  under  §  8. 

VAN  DYKE,  J.  C.     Principles  of  Art. 
Pt.  I   Art  in  History. 

A  rapid  outline  of  the  development  of  art,  mainly  of  sculpture 
and  painting,  from  primitive  times  to  the  present.  An  excellent 
introduction  to  more  comprehensive  histories.  The  art  of  the 
three  chief  periods  treated  is  designated  as :  (i)  imitative, 
decorative,  and  symbolic  ;  (2)  classical  and  symmetrical ;  (3) 
emotional,  intellectual,  and  individual. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  195 

VISCHER,  F.  T.     Aesthetik  oder  Wissenschaft  des    Schonen. 
3  vols.     Reutlingen  :   1846. 

Vischer  treats  of  the  historical  development  of  art  at  great 
lengthj  —  at  too  great  length  for  most  readers  to  follow  him. 
Beginning  at  p.  403  of  the  second  volume,  he  first  traces  the 
history  of  the  ideal  through  the  ancient,  mediaeval,  and  modern 
periods.  In  vol.  Ill,  pp.  134—138,  he  deals  with  the  development 
of  style  ;  pp.  265-330,  the  history  of  architecture  ;  pp.  468-496, 
the  history  of  the  plastic  arts  ;  pp.  692-755,  the  history  of  paint- 
ing; pp.  1122—1151,  the  history  of  music.  Though  the  history 
of  poetry  is  not  taken  up  separately,  Vischer's  views  upon  the 
principles  of  its  development  may  be  found  in  vol.  Ill,  pp.  1194- 
1198.  The  reasons  for  this  change  of  method  in  the  treat- 
ment of  poetry  are  stated  at  the  end  of  §  86 1,  vol.  Ill,  p.  258. 

The  trend  of  thought  is  throughout  Hegelian. 

WALDSTEIN,   CHAS.     Essays  on   the  Art  of   Pheidias.     Cam- 
bridge :   1889. 

Two  of  these  fascinating  and  scholarly  essays  the  reader 
cannot  by  any  means  afford  to  pass  by  :  they  are  that  on  the 
province,  aim,  and  methods  of  the  study  of  classical  archaeol- 
ogy ;  and  that  entitled  the  Spirit  of  Pheidias,  in  its  Relation 
to  his  Age,  Life,  and  Character.  As  a  valuable  contribution  to 
the  study  of  the  evolution  of  art  should  also  be  consulted  the 
article  in  the  appendix,  p.  394  :  The  Influence  of  Athletic 
Games  upon  Greek  Art. 

WARD,    LESTER    F.      Dynamic    Sociology.     2    vols.     N.  Y.  : 
1883. 

In  this  important  work  some  attention  is  given  to  the  soci- 
ological aspects  of  art,  but  the  references  are  scattering  and 
the  treatment  tentative.  Consult  the  index  under  the  terms 
Aesthetic  Forces,  Aesthetic  Sentiments.  References  under  Art 


1%  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  11. 

are  to  the  industrial  or  useful  arts,  to  which  the  author  devotes 
a  great  deal  of  space.  Cf.  the  same  author's  more  recent 
Outlines  of  Sociology  (N.  Y.  :  1898). 

WINCKELMANN,  J.     The  History  of  Ancient  Art.     Trans,  by 
G.  H.  Lodge.     2  vols.     Boston  :   1880. 

This  work  is  the  earliest  of  its  kind  worthy  of  mention,  for  such 
treatises  as  Winckelmann  himself  knew  of,  Monier's  History  of 
Art,  for  instance,  and  Turnbull's  Ancient  Painting,  lack  breadth 
of  knowledge  and  artistic  acumen.  Winckelmann's  especial 
merit  is  that  he  was  the  first  to  apply  the  historic  method  to  the 
study  of  the  Fine  Arts.  His  revelations  concerning  the  prin- 
ciples of  Greek  Art  had  an  influence  that  did  not  stop  with 
Lessing  and  Goethe  ;  it  has  extended  even  to  our  time.  But 
the  student,  though  he  may  gain  infinite  information  and  sug- 
gestion from  this  great  critic,  should  remember  that  Winckel- 
mann's conclusions  are  drawn  rather  from  the  study  of  Greek 
art  —  and  even  with  that  his  acquaintance  was  limited  —  than 
from  the  study  of  art  in  general.  Hegel,  Aesthetik,  vol.  I, 
p.  8 1,  says  of  him  :  "Winckelmann  was  inspired  by  the  con- 
templation of  the  ideals  of  the  ancients  to  such  a  degree  that 
he  has  awakened  a  new  sense  for  the  appreciation  of  art,  has 
removed  such  appreciation  from  the  point  of  view  of  common 
aims  and  a  mere  imitation  of  nature,  and  has  set  us  to  seeking  the 
idea  of  art  in  the  works  and  history  of  art.  Winckelmann  is  to 
be  regarded  as  one  of  the  men  who  have  been  able  in  the  realm 
of  art  to  open  for  the  spirit  a  new  organ  and  entirely  new 
fashions  of  contemplation."  The  student's  attention  is  espe- 
cially called  to  vol.  I,  pp.  285-320,  On  the  Causes  of  the  Supe- 
riority of  Greek  Art,  and  on  the  essential  of  Art  ;  pp.  133-167, 
On  the  Origin  of  Art.  Cf.  also  the  interesting  preface  to  the 
Monumenti  Inediti  (2  vols.  Rome  :  1867),  in  which  Winckel- 
mann explains  with  care  the  method  of  his  History. 


§  11.]  REFERENCES.  197 

WOLTMANN,   A.,  and  WOERMANN,    K.     History  of   Painting. 

Trans,  by  Clara  Bell.  2  vols.  Lond.  :  1887. 
Dr.  Alfred  von  Woltmann,  who  had  been  professor  of  Art  at 
Prague  and  afterwards  at  Strassburg,  lived  after  undertaking 
this  great  work  only  long  enough  to  complete  that  part  on 
Christian  and  Mediaeval  art  which  occupies  the  latter  half  of 
the  first  volume,  and  the  sections  in  vol.  II  on  the  Renascence 
in  the  North,  the  first  chapter  on  the  Renascence  in  Germany, 
and  the  History  of  Italian  art  in  the  i5th  century  (as  far  as 
p.  380).  Nearly  all  the  rest  of  the  history  :  Painting  in  the 
Ancient  World,  and  the  latter  chapters  of  vol.  II  on  the  Painting 
of  the  Renascence,  is  the  result  of  the  labor  of  Dr.  Karl 
Woermann.  The  sections  on  the  attitude  of  the  early  Chris- 
tians toward  Art,  vol.  I,  p.  151  ;  and  the  general  remarks  on 
pp.  201,  207,  221,  251,  324,  423,  492  ;  and  in  vol.  II,  pp.  3-7, 
61,  93,  124,  253,  270,  459,  will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the 
theory  underlying  the  volume.  Professor  Colvin,  writing  in 
1880  the  preface  to  the  first  volume  of  this  work,  says  that  the 
narrative  now  set  before  the  reader  will  be  found  to'  be  the 
most  complete  and  trustworthy  history  of  painting  yet  written. 

LUBKE,  W.  Ecclesiastical  Art  in  Germany  during  the  Middle 
Ages.  Trans.,  with  appendix,  by  L.  A.  Wheatley.  Lond. : 
1870. 

LUBKE,  W.     History  of  Sculpture.     Trans,  by  F.  E.  Bunnett. 

2  vols.     Lond.  :   1872. 
LUBKE,    W.      Geschichte   der   Architectur   von    den  altesten 

Zeiten  bis  zur  Gegenwart  dargestellt.     1875. 

LUBKE,  W.     Outlines  of  the  History  of  Art.     Trans,  and  ed. 

by  C.  Cook.     2  vols.     N.  Y. :   1878. 

It  will  be  seen  from  the  following  synopsis  of  the  Outlines  of 
the  History  of  Art,  how  extended  is  the  scope  of  this  famous 
work  :  vol.  I,  pp.  1-16,  Origin  and  Beginnings  of  Art;  pp.  17- 


198  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  12'  A- 

121,  The  Ancient  Art  of  the  East  :  Egypt,  Central  Asia,  Western 
Asia,  Eastern  Asia,  India  ;  pp.  121-337,  Classic  Art  :  Greek, 
Etruscan,  Roman  ;  p.  337-vol.  II,  p.  121,  Mediaeval  Art  :  Early 
Christian,  Mohammedan,  Romanesque,  Gothic;  pp.  121-640, 
Art  of  Modern  Times  :  Modern  Architecture,  Plastic  Art  in 
Italy  and  in  the  North. 

Liibke  has  in  a  clear,  noble,  and  scholarly  manner  attempted 
to  trace  a  progressive  development  of  ideas  in  the  course  of 
art,  wherever  art  has  had  beginning,  has  flourished,  and  has 
died.  He  studies  this  universal  language  of  mankind  in  its 
primitive  stammering  when  not  the  individual  but  the  law 
behind  him  seems  to  speak,  and  in  its  mature  eloquence  when 
the  differences  of  minds  stand  out  conscious  and  clear.  The 
rise  of  the  intellectual  movement  and  its  expression  in  the 
later  Romanesque  style  is  of  absorbing  interest,  and  from 
the  beginning  of  the  second  volume  the  growth  of  the  spirit  of 
liberty  attracts  attention  with  every  broadening  symptom  of  art. 
While  the  chapter  opening  on  p.  121  of  this  volume  gives  a 
remarkably  comprehensive  view  of  the  characteristics  of  modern 
art,  it  is,  perhaps,  a  matter  of  regret  that  Liibke  has  seen  fit  to 
crowd  English  Art  in  the  nineteenth  century  into  a  page, 
American  Art  into  a  paragraph,  and  to  omit  all  reference  to 
French  contributions  to  reproductive  art.  However,  this  work 
is,  on  the  whole,  a  great  authority  on  the  evolution  of  art. 


§   12.      GENERAL   NOTE. 

A.  A  SHORT  COURSE  OF  READING  in  the  history  of  art  should 
cover  at  least  the  following  classes  of  works  : 

(1)  A  good  representative  of  the  philosophical  or  speculative 
treatment  of  art-evolution,  as  Hegel's  Introduction  to  the  Phi- 
losophy of  Fine  Art  (Bosanquet's  Translation). 

(2)  A  good  representative  of  the  scientific  treatment  of  the 
same  subject,  as  Baldwin  Brown's  The  Fine  Arts. 


JB-CJ]  GENERAL   NOTE.  199 

(3)  Some  standard  history  of  a  single  art  or  a  single  group 
of  arts,  as  Liibke's  History  of  Art,  or  Perrot  and  Chipiez's 
History  of  Ancient  Egyptian  Art,  or  Woltmann  and  Woer- 
mann's  History  of  Painting,  or  Hamerton's  Drawing  and 
Engraving.  For  further  references,  see  Sturgis  and  Krehbiel's 
Bibliography  of  Fine  Art  (Boston  :  1891). 

Longer  courses  of  reading  have  been  sufficiently  indicated  in 
the  references  in  §§  9,  10. 

B.  ADVANCED  STUDEHTS,  who  wish  to  form  an  independent 
judgment  upon  the  principles  of  the  history  of  art,  must  of 
course  go  to  the  sources  —  study  for  themselves  not  only  the 
scientific  histories  of  Art,  but  also  the  history  which,  growing  up 
day  by  day  out  of  the   investigations   of  archaeologists  and 
students  of  the  arts,  finds   a   record  in  such  publications  as 
the  American  Journal  of  Archaeology,  L'Art,  Die  Archaeologische 
Zeitung,   the  bulletins,  annals,  and  memoirs  of  the   Institute 
Archeologico,  etc. 

C.  COLLATERAL  AIDS.  —  (i)  A  succinct  statement  of  the  evolu- 
tionary theories  on  which  the  history  of  art  is  sometimes  based, 
may  be  found   in  Huxley's  article  '  Biology '  in    the   Encycl. 
Brit.,  Qth  ed.     (2)  For  sociological  principles  the  reader  may 
be  referred   to   Professor  Giddings's   Principles  of  Sociology 
(N.  Y.  :   1896),   in   the  opening  chapter  of  which  is   a  brief 
statement  of  many  theories,  including  the   author's   own  ;   to 
Vincent's  The   Social  Mind    (N.  Y.  :    1897)  ;  and  to   Ward's 
Outlines  of  Sociology  (N.  Y.  :   1898). 


CHAPTER   III. 

PRINCIPLES    OF  LITERATURE. 


PART  I.  —  THEORY  OF  LITERATURE. 

§   13.      STATEMENT   OF   PROBLEMS  ;   ANALYSIS. 

IN  this  chapter  we  shall  consider  questions  relating  to  litera- 
ture as  a  whole,  reserving  for  succeeding  chapters  questions 
relating  to  special  classes,  epochs,  or  phases  of  literature. 

/.  Mature  and  Scope  of  Literature.  —  The  student  may 
begin  by  comparing  a  few  notable  definitions.  The  following 
are  especially  worthy  of  examination  :  "  All  knowledge  that 
reaches  us  through  books  is  literature  "  (Matthew  Arnold,  Dis- 
courses in  America,  p.  90).  "The  written  thoughts  and  feelings 
of  intelligent  men  and  women,  arranged  in  a  way  that  shall  give 
pleasure  to  the  reader"  (Brooke,  English  Literature,  ist  ed., 
p.  5).  "By  letters  or  literature  is  meant  the  expression  of 
thought  in  language,  where  by  'thought'  I  mean  the  ideas, 
feelings,  views,  reasonings,  and  other  operations  of  the  human 
mind"  (Newman,  Idea  of  a  University,  p.  291).  "The  repre- 
sentation ...  of  a  specific  personality  in  its  preference,  its 
volition  and  power.  Such  is  the  matter  of  imaginative  or 
artistic  literature  —  this  transcript,  not  of  mere  fact,  but  of  fact 
in  its  infinite  variety,  as  modified  by  human  preference  in  all 
its  infinitely  varied  forms"  (Pater,  Appreciations,  pp.  6,  7). 
"Literature  consists  of  all  the  books  .  .  .  where  moral  truth 
and  human  passion  are  touched  with  a  certain  largeness,  sanity, 
and  attractiveness  of  form  "  (J.  Morley,  On  the  Study  of  Litera- 


§  13,  /.]       NA  TURE  AND  SCOPE    OF  LITER  A  TURE.  201 

ture,  pp.  39,  40).  "  We  may  be  content  to  set  out  with  a  rough 
definition  of  literature  as  consisting  of  works  which,  whether  in 
verse  or  prose,  are  the  handicraft  of  imagination  rather  than 
reflection,  aim  at  the  pleasure  of  the  greatest  possible  number 
of  the  nation,  rather  than  instruction  and  practical  effects,  and 
appeal  to  general  rather  than  specialized  knowledge  "  (Posnett, 
Comparative  Literature,  p.  18).  "Literature  is  the  effort  of 
man  to  indemnify  himself  for  the  wrongs  of  his  condition  " 
(Emerson,  paper  on  Walter  Savage  Landor,  The  Dial,  2  : 262). 
"  Literature,  more  especially  poetic  and  dramatic  literature,  is 
the  expression  in  letters  of  the  spiritual,  cooperating  with  the 
intellectual,  man,  the  former  being  the  primary,  dominant 
coefficient  "  (H.  Corson,  The  Aims  of  Literary  Study,  p.  24).1 
For  other  definitions  the  following  sources  may  be  consulted  : 
Dowden,  Transcripts  and  Studies,  pp.  237-240  ;  Nettleship, 
The  Moral  Influence  of  Literature;  J.  Morley,  Voltaire, 
pp.  13—15  ;  Sherman,  Analytics  of  Literature,  chap.  I ;  Bascom, 
Philosophy  of  English  Literature,  Lecture  I ;  Thos.  Arnold, 
Manual  of  English  Literature,  pp.  341-342  ;  Lewes,  Prin- 
ciples of  Success  in  Literature,  chap.  I  ;  De  Quincey,  Brevia 
(Posthumous  Works),  pp.  300-305 ;  Mabie,  Short  Studies  in 
Literature,  p.  5  ;  Brother  Azarius,  The  Philosophy  of  Litera- 
ture ;  Wendell,  Stelligeri,  and  Other  Essays,  pp.  93-107; 
Carlyle,  On  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship  (the  Hero  as  Man  of 
Letters)  ;  H.  Paul,  Grundriss  der  Germanischen  Philologie,  Bd. 
I,  p.  216  ;  Gerber,  Die  Sprache  als  Kunst,  Bd.  I,  pp.  43-122  ; 
Boeckh,  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  Philol.  Wissen- 
schaften,  p.  614;  Joh.  Scherr,  Allgemeine  Geschichte  der 
Litteratur,  Bd.  I,  p.  i  ;  The  article  '  Litteratur '  in  Brockhaus' 
Conversations-Lexikon  ;  G.  Korting,  Encyklopadie  u.  Metho- 
dologie d.  Romanischen  Philologie,  pp.  63,  64,  73. 

1  Although  these  quotations  will  be  found  interesting  and  valuable  in 
themselves,  the  student  should  bear  in  mind  that  they  can  be  rightly  inter- 
preted only  when  they  are  studied  in  their  proper  context. 


202  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§13. 

An  attempt  should  be  made  to  group  these  definitions  in 
accordance  with  some  principle  or  system.  In  one  class  may 
be  put  definitions  which  assume  that  literature  is  one  of  the  fine 
arts,  in  another  class  definitions  which  do  not  make  this 
assumption.  Definitions  may  also  be  grouped  accordingly  as 
they  survey  literature  from  the  aesthetic,  the  psychological,  and 
the  social  point  of  view  ;  or  they  may  be  arranged  in  a  descend- 
ing scale,  from  the  most  to  the  least  comprehensive. 

The  following  questions  will  be  found  suggestive  when  any 
definition  is  under  examination  :  Does  the  definition  recognize 
a  unity  in  all  literature  ?  Does  it  include  all  recognized  literary 
movements  ?  Does  it  include  compositions  transmitted  by 
word  of  mouth  ?  Does  it  apply  equally  well  to  all  nationalities  ? 
Does  it  throw  emphasis  equally  upon  prose  and  poetry  ?  Does 
it  include  all  literary  types?  Does  it  set  forth  or  imply  some 
standard  of  literary  value  ? 

//.  Relation  of  Literature  to  Art.  —  Upon  this  interesting 
question  the  authorities  differ  widely.  Four  opinions  may  be 
distinguished,  as  follows  :  (i)  Literature  is  a  variety  of  fine 
art,  coordinate  with  music  and  painting.  (2)  A  single  branch 
of  literature,  namely,  poetry,  may  be  classed  with  the  fine  arts  ; 
prose  is  not  fine  but  useful  art.  (3)  Either  poetry  or  prose  may 
be  classed  as  fine  art,  provided  it  is  an  embodiment  of  the 
beautiful ;  otherwise  it  is  useful  art.  (4)  Literature  is  not  an 
art  at  all,  but  is  a  product,  stti  generis,  of  the  mind  of  man, 
touching  art  at  one  or  two  points. 

The  evidences  of  the  artistic  character  of  literature  are  ably 
and  clearly  set  forth  in  an  article  on  Principles  of  Criticism,  by 
E.  R.  Sill  in  the  Atlantic,  56:  665,  and  in  the  opening  chapter 
of  Crawshaw's  Interpretation  of  Literature.  The  same  concep- 
tion underlies  Pater's  essay  on  Style,  and  Newman's  Lecture 
on  Literature,  in  The  Idea  of  a  University.  The  student  may 
also  consult  Mabie's  Short  Studies  in  Literature,  Higginson's 


///.]         RELATION  OF  LITERATURE    TO  SCIENCE.  203 

Atlantic  Essays,  pp.  23-47,  and  Vernon  Lee's  article  on  Literary 
Construction  in  Contemp.  68 :  404.  For  a  conception  in  which 
art  is  set  aside  or  is  relegated  to  a  minor  office,  see  Posnett's 
Comparative  Literature,  and  H.  Paul's  Methodenlehre  in  his 
Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie. 

The  following  questions  may  be  found  suggestive  :  If  litera- 
ture is  an  art,  how  is  it  differentiated  from  architecture,  paint- 
ing, sculpture,  music,  etc.,  in  point  of  medium  and  content? 
What  ideas  may  be  expressed  in  literature  that  cannot  find 
expression  in  the  other  arts  ?  (See  Strieker's  Du  langage  et 
de  la  musique,  Watts's  article  '  Poetry '  in  the  Encycl.  Britan- 
nica,  and  Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic,  pp.  460-462.  The 
questions  raised  by  Lessing  in  the  Laocoon,  concerning  the 
boundaries  of  poetry  and  painting,  may  profitably  be  considered 
at  this  point.  See  Lessing,  §  8,  and  the  references  there 
given  ;  also  Hazlitt,  Offspring  of  Thought,  pp.  130-144.)  What 
is  the  relation  of  literary  form  to  literary  content?  How  is 
literary  art  related  to  nature?  What  is  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciple of  literary  art  —  is  it  life,  expression,  personality,  unity  ? 
(See  supra,  pp.  84,  85.) 

///.  Relation  of  Literature  to  Science  and  Philosophy.  — 

On  the  relation  of  literature  to  science  the  student  may  con- 
sult Huxley's  Lecture  on  Literature  and  Science  in  Nature, 
22  :  545  (also  in  Pop.  Set.  Mo.  18  :  159)  ;  Matthew  Arnold's] 
Discourses  in  America,  pp.  72-137  ;  Huxley's  Liverpool  Lec- 
ture, in  London  Jnl.  of  Education  for  March,  1883  (see  abstract 
in  Nature,  27  :  396)  ;  Brackett's  essay  on  the  Relation  of 
Modern  Science  to  Literature,  in  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.  15:  166 ; 
Burroughs's  Indoor  Studies,  p.  43  ;  Bishop  Thirlwall's  Essays, 
Speeches,  and  Sermons,  pp.  284-311  ;  and  the  discussion  by 
O.  L.  Triggs  and  L.  A.  Sherman,  in  Poet-Lore,  6  :  113,  323,  on 
Literature  and  the  Scientific  Spirit.  One  phase  of  the  ques- 
tion is  touched  upon  in  an  interesting  way  in  Woodrow  Wil- 


204  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  13,  IV. 

son's  essay  on  Mere  Literature,  in  the  book  which  bears  the 
same  title,  and  in  A.  S.  Cook's  address  on  the  Province  of 
English  Philology  (Pubs,  of  the  Mod.  Language  Assoc.,  N.  s. 
vol.  VI,  No.  2).  See  also  Knight's  article  on  Poetry  and  Sci- 
ence :  Their  Contrasts  and  Affinities,  in  University  of  Chicago 
Record,  3:9. 

On  the  connection  between  literature  and  philosophy,  see 
J.  Dewey's  Poetry  and  Philosophy,  Andover  Review,  n  :  92, 
and  B.  C.  Burt's  Some  Relations  between  Philosophy  and 
Literature. 

IV.  The  Elements  of  Literature.  —  These  are  commonly  dis- 
tinguished as  content  and  form.  Regarding  the  relation  of  the 
two  much  has  been  written,  but  the  most  interesting  questions 
refer  to  the  influence  of  one  upon  the  other  and  the  degree  to 
which  they  may  be  separated  by  analysis.  See  on  this  point 
the  opening  paragraphs  of  De  Quincey's  essay  on  Style  and 
the  closing  paragraphs  of  his  essay  on  Language ;  Steinthal, 
Zeitschrift  f.  Volkerpsychologie,  4  :  465,  Zur  Stylistik ;  Brune- 
tiere,  Histoire  et  litte'rature,  p.  31  et  seq.  For  detailed  analyses 
of  the  elements  of  literature,  see  Crawshaw,  Boeckh,  Korting, 
Paul,  ten  Brink. 

"A.  COHTEFT. — The  following  are  some  of  the  leading  ques- 
tions to  be  asked  upon  this  point : 

Has  literature  a  distinctive  subject-matter  ?  (See  Bagehot, 
Literary  Studies,  vol.  II,  p.  341.  Some  of  the  subject-matters 
that  have  been  proposed  are,  experience,  humanity,  nature, 
aspiration,  life,  God,  the  relation  of  man  to  God,  society.) 

What  is  the  relative  value  of  the  thought-element  and  the 
emotional-element  in  literature  ?  (See  Bascom's  Philos.  of 
English  Literature,  p.  344;  Crawshaw's  Interpretation  of 
Literature,  pp.  44-50.) 

Must  every  literary  work  have  an  ethical  content  ? 


/?.]  THE  ELEMENTS   OF  LITERATURE.  205 

In  what  sense  may  the  personality  of  the  author  be  said  to 
be  subject-matter  of  his  literary  work  ? 

Is  literature  restricted  to  the  presentation  of  objects  possess- 
ing beauty?  ideality?  universality? 

Is  unity  of  subject-matter  essential  to  a  work  of  literary  art? 

B.  FORM.  —  The  problems  relating  to  literary  form  are 
numerous  and  perplexing.  Only  those  will  be  mentioned 
which  concern  literature  in  its  broader  aspects.  For  a  treat- 
ment of  the  details  of  rhythm,  metre,  structure,  and  so  forth, 
see  the  following  chapters. 

i.  THE  NATURE  OF  LANGUAGE.  —  This  is  an  abstruse  subject, 
and  one,  moreover,  which  is  so  overlaid  by  controversy  that 
many  of'  its  profounder  aspects  must  remain,  for  all  except 
specialists,  hopelessly  obscure.  Nevertheless,  some  insight 
may  be  gained,  even  by  the  general  reader,  into  the  fundamen- 
tal principles  of  the  science  of  language  ;  and  these,  once 
mastered,  -become  powerful  weapons  of  attack  upon  certain 
questions  of  style  that  otherwise  must  remain  insoluble,  or  be 
only  vaguely,  apprehended.  The  old  quarrel  as  to  the  origin 
of  language,  though  now  generally  abandoned  by  philologists,1 
will  always  remain  interesting  reading.  A  resume  of  the  most 
important  speculations  may  be  found  in  Whitney's  article 
'Philology'  in  the  Encycl.  Brit.,  in  Max  Miiller's  Lectures  on 
the  Science  of  Language,  ist  Series,  p.  343,  and  in  Ellis's 
article  on  the  Relations  of  Thought  to  Sound,  in  Trans,  of  the 
English  Philol.  Society,  1873-74,  pp.  10-15.  More  to  the 
present  purpose  is  the  question,  What  is  the  relation  of 
thought  and  language  ?  A  suggestive  discussion  of  this 
problem  occurs  in  Jowett's  Translation  of  Plato's  Dialogues, 
3d  ed.  vol.  I,  pp.  281-321.  More  scientific  treatment  is 

1  The  increasing  interest  in  the  study  of  the  language  of  children  seems 
likely  to  revive  speculation  on  this  question. 


206  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  13,  IV. 

given  in  Whitney's  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language, 
pp.  403-407,  Life  and  Growth  of  Language,  chaps.  II  and  XIV, 
the  article  'Philology'  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  and 
Max  Miiller's  Science  of  Thought.  For  those  who  care  to  pursue 
the  subject  further,  Paul's  Principles  of  the  History  of  Lan- 
guage may  be  unhesitatingly  recommended.  The  introduction 
and  pp.  1—19  of  the  main  body  of  this  valuable  work  may  be 
read  with  profit  even  by  the  general  reader.  The  peculiar 
theory  enunciated  by  Max  Miiller  (the  identification  of  thought 
and  language)  is  developed  at  great  length  in  his  Science  of 
Thought.  For  a  more  popular  exposition,  see  his  Three 
Introductory  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Thought,  first 
published  in  the  Open  Court.  The  questions  raised  by  the 
philologists  have  been  pursued  with  great  zeal  by  writers  on 
psychology.  Brief  statements  of  the  psychological  function  of 
language  are  given  in  Dewey's  Psychology,  pp.  211-214,  and  in 
Sully's  Outlines  of  Psychology,  pp.  337-351.  James's  Principles 
of  Psychology,  vol.  I,  pp.  236,  241,  245,  251—283,  vol.  II, 
pp.  356-358,  364,  is  unusually  fertile  in  suggestions:  See  also 
the  article  by  G.  J.  Romanes  in  the  Monist,  Oct.,  1891,  on 
Thought  and  Language.  The  more  technical  points  involved 
in  the  discussion  may  be  traced  through  Bruchmann's  Psycho- 
logische  Studien,  2.  Theil ;  Victor  Egger's  La  parole  inte'rieure  ; 
Ballet's  Le  langage  intdrieur  ;  Bateman's  On  Aphasia,  chap. 
V ;  Lemoine's  Physionomie  de  la  parole ;  Rabier's  Legons  de 
philosophic,  I,  pp.  596-622 ;  Paulhan's  article  Le  langage 
inte'rieur  in  Revue PhiJos.  21 :  26;  and  A.Kussmaul's  Strorungen 
der  Sprache  (Leipz. :  1877).  The  interesting  article,  '  Thought 
and  Language,'  by  G.  F.  Stout  (in  Mind,  16  :  181)  does  not 
treat  of  language  as  a  means  of  communication,  but  as  "  a 
means  by  which  a  man  is  enabled  to  understand  himself." 
The  comparison  of  words  to  algebraic  symbols,  often  quoted 
in  these  discussions,  will  be  found  in  Lewes's  Problems  of  Life 
and  Mind,  3d  Ser.,  Prob.  4,  chap.  V.  For  a  suggestion  as  to 


B.~]  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  LITERATURE.  207 

the  light  which  studies  of  the  nature  of  language  may  throw 
upon  questions  of  style,  see  Posnett's  Comparative  Literature, 
pp.  44— 5 2,  Whitney's  Life  and  Growth  of  Language,  pp.  301,  302, 
Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  Bk.  II,  chap.  VII,  Spencer's 
Philosophy  of  Style,  Gerber's  Die  Sprache  als  Kunst,  and 
Santayana's  The  Sense  of  Beauty,  pp.  167—174. 

2.  STYLE.  —  Uporl  the  threshold  of  his  inquiry  the  student  will 
encounter  the  great  problem  of  style,  which  in  the  hands  of 
some  writers  is  made  to  swallow  all  other  problems,  whether 
of  literature  or  of  criticism.  To  answer  the  question,  What 
is  style  ?  the  student  who  reads  German  may  get  help  from 
Rumohr's  Italienische  Forschungen,  where  the  different  mean- 
ings attached  to  the  term  'are  carefully  discriminated,  or  from 
the  article  '  Stil '  in  Brockhaus'  Conversations-Lexikon,  in 
which  Rumohr's  views  are  summarized.  On  the  relation  of 
originality,  style,  and  manner  he  may  read  Hegel's  Aesthetik,  j 
vol.  I,  pp.  365-374,  and  compare  with  it  Matthew  Arnold's  | 
Mixed  Essays,  p.  200.  The  definition  of  style  enunciated  by 
Buffon  will  be  found  in  the  Discours  sur  le  style.  The  question 
as  to  what  Buffon  meant  by  it  is  discussed  briefly  in  Lewes's 
History  of  Philosophy,  chapter  on  Hobbes,  Note,  in  Saintbury's 
French  Literature,  p.  500,  and  in  Modern  Language  Notes, 
vol.  V,  pp.  179-180.  De  Quincey's  essay  on  Style,  long- 
winded  though  it  is,  must  be  carefully  studied  by  all  who 
would  understand  the  history  of  thought  on  this  subject.  With 
it  should  be  read  his  essay  on  Rhetoric.  Coleridge's  remarks 
on  Style  (in  vol.  IV  of  his  Complete  Works,  pp.  337-343)  should 
not  be  overlooked.  Ruskin's  peculiar  theories  about  the  grand 
style  (in  Modern  Painters,  vol.  Ill,  and  in  Fiction,  Fair  and  I 
Foul)  should  be  compared  with  those  of  Matthew  Arnold  as  1 
set  forth  in  the  essay  on  Translating  Homer.  Selections  from 
both,  with  an  interesting  preface,  will  be  found  in  A.  S.  Cook's 
Touchstones  of  Poetry.  In  the  case  of  Arnold,  the  question 


208  LITER  A  R  Y  CRITICISM.  [§  13,  IV. 

should  be  asked,  Can  extracts  from  one  class  or  one  period 
I  of  literature  be  made  to  serve  as  tests  for  literature  of  another 
I  class  or  another  period  ?  Other  essays  and  books  dealing  with 
certain  phases  of  style  are  Spencer's  Philosophy  of  Style, 
Pater's  essay  on  Style,  Stevenson's  essay  On  Style  in  Litera- 
ture, Joubert's  Pense'es,  and  Bourget's  chapters  on  Flaubert 
and  the  brothers  de  Goncourt,  in  Essais  de  psychologic.  Those 
who  desire  to  go  more  deeply  into  the  philosophy  of  style  may 
consult  Von  Hartmann's  Aesthetik,  vol.  II,  references  in  Index 
under  Stil  ;  Vischer's  Aesthetik,  references  under  Stil,  Stylge- 
gensatz,  Stylgesetz,  and  Stylisirung  ;  Richter's  Aesthetik,  vol. 
II,  pp.  601-656  ;  Schopenhauer's  Sammtliche  Werke,  vol.  VI, 
pp.  536-581;  Steinthal's  article  in  Zeitschrift  filr  Volkcrpsycho- 
logic,  4:  465  ;  and  Veron's  Aesthetics,  references  in  Index  under 
Style. 

The  following  questions  will  be  found  useful  as  guides  in 
the  study  of  this  somewhat  difficult  topic  :  (i)  Meaning  of  the 
term  style  as  applied  to  art  in  general  ?  (2)  Its  special  use,  or 
uses,  as  applied  to  literature  ?  (3)  Relation  of  style  to  individ- 
uality ?  (4)  Relation  of  style  to  manner  ?  (5)  In  what  sense 
is  the  style  the  man  ?  (6)  Can  style  be  preserved  in  transla- 
tion from  one  language  to  another  (see  Posnett's  Comparative 
Literature,  pp.  44-49  ;  Newman's  Idea  of  a  University,  pp.  285- 
290  ;  Lewes's  Life  of  Goethe,  Bk.  VI,  chap.  VII  ;  Boswell's 
Life  of  Johnson,  Index,  under  Translation)  ?  (7)  Charac- 
teristics of  national  styles  ?  (8)  Relation  of  style  and  idea  ? 
(9)  Tests  of  style?  (10)  Are  the  tests  the  same  for  all  litera- 
ture and  all  kinds  of  literature?  (n)  Is  Lewes's  threefold 
principle  of  Vision,  Sincerity,  and  Beauty  exhaustive  ?  (12)  Will 
Spencer's  principle  of  Economy  account  for  all  literary  values  ? 

3.    FIGURES.  —  The  following  outline  of  study  is  submitted. 
The  references  are  to  the  bibliography  of  figures  in  §  15. 
a.    Nature  of  figures. 


C.]  THE   ELEMENTS  OF  LITERATURE.  209 

(1)  Relation  of  figures  to  images?  to  plain  statements?  to 
concrete  terms  ?     See  LEWES,  BUCK,  DARMSTETER,  SCOTT  and 
DENNEY,  GENUNG. 

(2)  Are  figures  deviations  from  the  ordinary  forms  of  speech  ? 
See  Du  MARSAIS,  QUINTILIAN,  WHATELY,  BAIN,  GUMMERE. 

(3)  What  part  has  analogy  in  the  composition  of  figures? 
What  part  has  resemblance  ?  identification  ?  union,  or  recon- 
ciliation, of  opposites  ?  contrast  ?     See  D.  J.  HILL,  BAIN,  BUCK, 
SHERMAN. 

b.  The  effectiveness  of  figures. 

(1)  In  what  sense  are  figures   'ornaments'  of  discourse? 
See  GENUNG,  TOMPKINS. 

(2)  How  do  figures  contribute  to  force?   to  clearness?  to 
beauty  of   style  ?     See  WENDELL,   SPENCER,  GREENE,  HALE, 
BATES. 

c.  Classification  of  figures. 

(1)  What  is  the  simplest  and  most  natural  basis  of  classifica- 
tion —  origin,  effectiveness,  kind  of  image  aroused,  association, 
etc.? 

(2)  Value  of    the  division  into  figures  and   tropes  ?      See 
QUINTILIAN,  MINTO,  GUMMERE. 

Schemes  of  classification  are  numerous  and  varied.  For 
specimens  of  them,  see  De  Mille.  Interesting  attempts  at 
re-classification  have  been  made  by  C.  B.  Bradley,  Hale,  Greene, 
Buck,  Hart,  Sherman,  and  others.  See  in  general,  KOHFELDT, 
BIESE,  GERBER,  WACKERNAGEL. 

4.  RHYTHM.  —  See  the  sections  on  Poetry  and  Versification, 
19-24,  below. 

C.  PURPOSE.  —  The  purpose  (tendency,  aim,  object,  end, 
meaning,  message)  of  a  literary  work  is  by  some  writers  sub- 
sumed under  the  content,  by  others  regarded  as  a  distinct 
literary  element.  Its  various  meanings  should  be  carefully  dis- 
tinguished. Thus  it  may  mean  :  (i)  the  theme  of  the  work ; 


210  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  13,  V-VIL 

(2)  the  guiding  impulse  of  the  author ;  (3)  the  effect  which  the 
work  is  expected  to  have  on  the  public  ;  (4)  the  extra-artistic 
element  in  the  work. 

/.  The  Author.  —  (i)  What  distinguishes  the  man  of  letters 
from  other  kinds  of  artists,  as  the  musician,  the  painter,  and 
the  sculptor  ?  What  elements  in  his  organization  are  akin  to 
theirs  ?  See  GIRARDIN.  (2)  Is  it  true  historically  that  in 
great  authors  the  artistic  impulse  has  been  the  strongest  incen- 
tive to  literary  work  ?  (3)  Is  the  literary  artist  helped  or 
hindered  by  a  strong  moral  purpose  ?  (4)  To  what  extent 
have  authors  been  conscious  of  their  own  methods  of  work  ? 
(See  Bainton,  Art  of  Authorship.)  (5)  Is  it  necessary  that  an 
author,  in  order  to  write  effectively,  should  feel  the  emotions  he 
depicts?  (See  Horace,  Ars  Poetica,  1.  102  ;  Diderot's  Paradox 
of  Acting  ;  Lewes's  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature,  p.  91  ; 
and  the  Critic  for  March  24  and  March  31,  1888.) 

//.  The  Public.  —  (i)  To  what  extent  and  in  what  sense  is 
the  success  of  a  work  the  test  of  its  real  value  ?  (See  Lewes's 
Principles  of  Success  in  Literature,  pp.  23-30.)  (2)  Wrhat  is 
the  influence  of  any  given  mode  of  publication  upon  the  char- 
acter of  literature  ?  (See  De  Quincey,  Essay  on  Style,  pt.  IV.) 

(3)  To  what  extent  have  great  works  of  literature  been  shaped 
or  influenced  by  public  demand  or  by  the  author's  conscious- 
ness of  a  public  ? 

Consult,  in  general,  on  this  topic  the  able  work  of  A.  Beljame, 
Le  public  et  les  hommes  de  lettres  en  Angleterre  au  dixhuitieme 
siecle.  Paris :  1883. 

///.  The  Classification  of  Literature.  —  Most  authorities 
agree  in  dividing  literature  into  two  principal  kinds,  poetry 
and  prose.  The  basis  of  the  division  is  sometimes  held  to  be 
form,  sometimes  content,  sometimes  both  form  and  content. 
For  a  careful  treatment  of  the  subject  in  its  most  important 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  211 

phases,  see  the  article  '  Poetry,'  by  Watts,  in  the  Encycl.  Brit., 
9th  ed. ;  Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic,  pp.  460—462  ;  and 
Crawshaw's  Interpretation  of  Literature,  pp.  25-28.  For  objec- 
tions to  this  division,  see  Masson,  §  20,  infra,  who  proposes 
(after  Coleridge)  a  division  into  poetic  and  scientific  literature  ; 
and  cf.  Moir's  article  on  Poetry  in  the  "jth  ed.  of  the  Encycl. 
Brit,  (reprinted  in  Poetry,  Romance,  and  Rhetoric,  Edinb.  : 
1851),  and  Bain's  On  Teaching  English,  p.  254.  See  also  L.  A. 
Sherman's  Analytics  of  Literature,  p.  5  ef  seq. 

De  Quincey's  division  into  the  literature  of  power  and  the 
literature  of  knowledge  will  be  found  in  his  essay  on  Pope  and 
also  in  Letter  III  of  Letters  to  a  Young  Man. 

Other  divisions  that  have  been  proposed  are  :  (i)  creative, 

(2)  critical;    (i)  instrumental,  for  the   ends  of   business,  (2) 
artistic,  for  the  ends  of  pleasure  ;   (i)  narrative,  (2)  subjective, 

(3)  dramatic,    (4)    descriptive   (Crawshaw,    Interpretation   of 
Literature,  p.  41). 

A  division  into  good  literature  and  great  literature  is  proposed 
by  Walter  Pater  at  the  close  of  his  essay  on  Style. 

For  the  subdivisions  of  the  two  great  branches  of  literature, 
see  §  15,  4,  and  the  following  chapters  ;  and  for  the  classifi- 
cation of  literary  theory, —  'stylistic,'  rhetoric,  poetics,  metric, 
—  see  §§  15,  5,  and  19. 

§    14.      REFERENCES. 

ARNOLD,  M.     Discourses  in  America.     Lond. :  1885. 
Pp.  72-137  Literature  and  Science. 

Arnold  makes  a  distinction  between  literature  and  belles- 
lettres  (p.  90),  and  maintains,  against  Professor  Huxley,  the 
educative  value  of  letters,  on  the  ground  that  they  furnish  (as 
science  does  not)  nourishment  for  the  sense  for  beauty  and  the 
sense  for  conduct.  For  Huxley's  lecture,  see  Nature,  22:  545,  or 
Pop.  Sci.  Mo.  18: 159.  Huxley  touches  on  the  same  theme  (but 


212  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  14. 

with  somewhat  more  liberality  towards  letters)  in  his  Liverpool 
Lecture  (London  Jnl.  of  Education,  March,  1883;  abstract  in 
Nature,  27:  396). 

ARNOLD,  M.     Essays  in  Criticism.     Boston  :   1869. 

In  his  lectures  On  Translating  Homer,  pp.  284-367,  Arnold 
twice  touches  upon  the  nature  of  the  "  grand  style  "  in  litera- 
ture. See  especially  pp.  330-333,  392-396  ;  but  the  lectures 
should  be  read  in  their  entirety.  Cf.  A.  S.  Cook's  Touchstones 
of  Poetry. 

ARNOLD,  M.     Mixed  Essays.     N.  Y.  :   1879. 

See  p.  200  for  interesting  remarks  on  Addison's  style  and 
the  relation  of  style  to  manner.  The  essay  on  Wordsworth 
contains  the  paradoxical  statement  that  Wordsworth,  when  at 
his  best,  had  no  style  at  all. 

ARNOLD,  M.     Introduction  to  Ward's  English  Poets.     4  vols. 
Lond.:   1883. 
Pp.  xxv-xxix. 

Arnold  here,  as  in  his  lectures  On  Translating  Homer,  gives 
passages  which  may  be  applied  as  "  an  infallible  touchstone  for 
detecting  the  presence  or  absence  of  high  poetic  quality,  and 
also  the  degree  of  this  quality,  in  all  other  poetry  which  we 
may  place  beside  them." 

ARNOLD,  THOS.      A  Manual  of  English  Literature,  historical 
and    critical.      With    an    appendix    on    English    metres. 
Boston:    1891. 
See  pp.  341-343  for  definition  and  classification  of  literature. 

AZARIAS,  BROTHER.    Philosophy  of  Literature.    6th  ed.    N.  Y.  : 
1890. 

In  these  thoughtful  and  suggestive  essays  the  author's  starting- 
point  is  a  theory  of  the  beautiful  that  is  equally  applicable  to 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  213 

art  and  letters.  Literature  is  defined  as  the  expression  of 
humanity.  Its  origin,  functions,  and  relations  to  society  are 
entertainingly  discussed. 

BAGEHOT,  W.  Literary  Studies.  Ed.  by  R.  H.  Hutton.  2  vols. 
Lond.  :  1879. 

A  plea  for  the  use  of  the  term  literatesque  to  mean  what  is 
available  for  purposes  of  literary  art,  will  be  found  in  vol.  II, 
P-  34i. 

BAIN,  ALEX.  On  Teaching  English.  With  detailed  examples, 
and  an  Enquiry  into  the  Definition  of  Poetry.  Lond.  : 
1887. 

A  brief  consideration  of  the  kinds  of  literature  will  be  found 
on  p.  254. 

BALLET,  G.  Le  langage  interieur  et  les  diverses  formes  de 
1'aphasie.  Paris  :  1886. 

An  interesting  and  valuable  work  treating  of  the  psychology 
of  language  processes. 

BASCOM,  J.  Aesthetics  :  or  the  Science  of  Beauty.  N.  Y. : 
1872. 

Lecture  1 6  is  on  the  aesthetics  of  literature. 
BATES,  ARLO.     Talks  on  Literature.     Boston  :   1897. 
Discusses  the  simpler  fundamental  questions. 

BOECKH,  AUG.  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  philo- 
logischen  Wissenschaften.  (See  §  2.) 

This  is  a  work  which  every  earnest  student  of  literature  may 
consult  with  profit  ;  for  whether  he  adopts  Boeckh's  system  in 
its  entirety  or  not,  the  book  will  get  him  in  the  way  of  thinking 
of  literature  as  an  organic  whole,  and  will  furnish  him  with  an 
instrument  of  analysis  for  approaching  literature  at  any  point. 


214  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  14. 

In  order  to  understand  Boeckh's  philosophy  of  literature  in  its 
entirety  one  should  read  at  least  pp.  124-156,  but  something 
may  be  gleaned  from  a  reading  of  pp.  142—147.  A  definition 
and  a  classification  of  literature  will  be  found  on  pp.  614-616. 

BOURGET,  P.     Essais  de  psychologic  contemporaine.     4e  e'd. 

Paris  :   1885. 
See  pp.  156—173  of  the  essay  on  Flaubert. 

BOURGET,  P.  Nouveaux  essais  de  psychologic  contemporaine. 
Paris:  1886. 

See  pp.  180-198  of  the  essay  on  MM.  de  Goncourt. 

These  books  contain  valuable  contributions  to  the  psychology 
of  style. 

BURROUGHS,  JOHN.     Indoor  Studies.     Boston  :   1889. 

See  p.  43  for  an  entertaining  discussion  of  the  relation  of 
science  and  literature.  The  interests  of  the  two,  according  to 
the  author,  are  widely  different,  but  not  hostile  nor  mutually 
destructive. 

BRACKETT,  W.  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.  15  :  166  Relation  of  Modern 
Science  to  Literature. 

Maintains  the  inferiority  of  literature  to  science  in  usefulness 
and  permanence. 

BROOKE,  S.  A.  English  Literature.  (Literature  Primers.) 
Lond. :  1878. 

In  the  opening  paragraph  is  an  often-quoted  definition  of 
literature:  "The  written  thoughts  and  feelings  of  intelligent 
men  and  women  arranged  in  a  way  that  will  give  pleasure  to 
the  reader."  The  definitions  and  classifications  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs  are  simple  but  carefully  worded.  See  Matthew 
Arnold's  review  of  the  work,  in  Mixed  Essays,  pp.  180-204. 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  215 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.  Histoire  et  litterature.  3  vols.  Paris: 
1884-86. 

Vol.  I,  p.  31  Theorie  du  lieu  commun. 

M.  Brunettere  holds  the  view  that  in  the  substance  of  litera- 
ture invention  plays  no  part ;  all  is  commonplace.  Originality 
inheres  only  in  the  form.  The  thesis  is  maintained  with  spirit, 
and  is  supported  by  a  great  number  of  illustrations. 

BUFFON,  G.  L.  L.,  Comte  de.  Discours  sur  le  style.  —  Notes 
d'Antoine  Rondelet.  Paris:  1883. 

A  curious  example  of  a  piece  of  literature  that  has  become 
famous  by  a  single  phrase,  le  style  c'est  Fhomme,  —  a  phrase, 
moreover,  that  Buffon  never  wrote,  his  own  expression  being, 
le  style  est  de  Fhomme  meme.  Buffon  makes  the  point  that  style, 
unlike  subject-matter,  is  individual,  and  therefore  non-transfer- 
able. Contrary  to  the  theories  of  modern  rhetoricians,  he 
prefers  general  to  specific  terms. 

BURT,  B.  C.  Some  Relations  between  Philosophy  and  Litera- 
ture. Univ.  of  Mich.  Philos.  Papers,  No.  4. 

In  part  a  criticism  of  Matthew  Arnold. 

CARLYLE,  THOS.  On  Heroes,  Hero- Worship,  and  the  Heroic. 
N.  Y.  :  1846. 

Lect.  3  The  Hero  as  Poet;  Lect.  5  The  Hero  as  Man  of  Letters. 
See  p.  151  for  Carlyle's  characterization  of  literature. 

CHAIGNET,  A.-Ed.    La  rhetorique  et  son  histoire.     Paris  :  1888. 
Pp.  413-539  Theorie  du  style. 

CHRIST,  W.  Geschichte  der  Griechischen  Litteratur.  (In 
Iwan  Miiller's  Handbuch  der  Klassischen  Altertumswissen- 
schaft.  Bd.  VII.  Munchen:  1890.) 

An  outline  of  the  divisions  of  literature  will  be  found  on 
pp.  i-8.  The  author  closely  follows  Boeckh. 


216  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  14. 

COLERIDGE,  S.  T.  Complete  Works.  Ed.  by  Prof.  Shedd. 
7  vols.  N.  Y.  :  1853-54. 

Vol.  Ill,  Biographia  Literaria,  chaps.  III-IV,  X-XXII ;  vol.  IV, 
pp.  19-22  Definition  of  Poetry,  pp.  22-46  Drama,  pp.  328-336 
Poesy  as  Art,  pp.  337-343  Style,  pp.  368-370  Taste,  pp.  370- 
373  Beauty,  pp.  387-388  Wonderfulness  of  Prose. 

Although  Coleridge  nowhere  presents  his  conception  of 
literature  in  systematic  form,  his  occasional  definitions  and 
discussions  are  always  suggestive. 

CORSON,  H.     The  Aims  of  Literary  Study.     N.  Y.:  1895. 
See  p.  24  for  a  definition  of  literature. 

CRAWSHAW,  W.  H.  The  Interpretation  of  Literature.  N.  Y. : 
1896. 

An  admirable  little  work,  treating  in  a  clear  and  readable 
style  of  the  elementary  principles  of  literary  theory. 

DE  QUINCEY,  T.  The  Collected  Writings.  Ed.  by  D.  Masson. 
14  vols.  Edinb. :  1890. 

The  Letters  to  a  Young  Man,  the  essays  on  Style  and  on  Rhetoric, 
and  one  of  the  essays  on  Language  are  in  vol.  X ;  the  essay  on 
the  Poetry  of  Pope  is  in  vol.  X I ;  the  remaining  essay  on  Language 
is  in  vol.  XIV. 

DE  QUINCEY,  T.  Essays  on  Style,  Rhetoric,  and  Language. 
Ed.  with  Introduction  and  Notes  by  F.  N.  Scott.  Boston: 
1893. 

De  Quincey's  dissertation  on  Style  consists  mainly  of  a  his- 
tory of  Greek  style  and  numerous  digressions  on  other  national 
styles.  As  Renton  points  out,  De  Quincey  has  occasional 
flashes  of  insight  that  make  this  essay  in  some  respects  the 
most  notable  contribution  to  the  theory  of  style  after  Aristotle. 
See  Renton's  Logic  of  Style,  Introduction.  Cf.  also  De  Quin- 
cey's Essay  on  Rhetoric  and  the  concluding  paragraphs  of  the 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  217 

Essay  on  Language.  For  De  Quincey's  distinction  between 
the  literature  of  knowledge  and  the  literature  of  power,  see 
his  essay  on  the  Poetry  of  Pope  (the  passage  is  reprinted  in 
the  Appendix  of  this  edition,  pp.  238—240),  and  Letter  III 
of  his  Letters  to  a  Young  Man. 

DEWEY,  J.     Psychology.     N.  Y. :  1890. 

See  p.  3  and  pp.  211-213  on  the  psychology  of  language. 

DRAKE,  N.  Essays,  Biographical,  Critical,  and  Historical. 
Illustrative  of  the  Tatler,  Spectator,  and  Guardian.  2d  ed. 
Lond.:  1814. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  1-116  On  the  Progress  and  Merits  of  English  Style. 

EGGER,  V.     La  parole  in terieure.     Paris:  1 88 1. 

A  valuable  discussion  of  the  relation  of  thought  and  language. 

ELLIS,  A.  J.     Trans,  of  English  Philological  Society,   1873-74, 
PP-  3~34  Relations  of  Thought  to  Sound  as  the  Pivot  of 
Philological  Research. 
See  pp.  10-15  °f  this  able  paper  for  a  statement  of  theories 

concerning  the  origin  of  language. 

ELSTER,  ERNST.     Prinzipien  der  Literaturwissenschaft.     Bd.  I. 

Halle:  1897. 

The  author  attempts  to  construct  a  systematic  theory  of 
literature  upon  psychological,  aesthetic,  and  philological  founda- 
tions, drawing  his  underlying  philosophy  mainly  from  Wundt 
and  his  philology  (very  properly)  from  Paul.  The  work  is  in 
eight  chapters,  of  which  four  and  a  part  of  the  fifth  are  in  the 
first  volume.  The  subjects  of  the  chapters  are  as  follows:  I, 
The  Poetic  Conception  of  Life  ;  II,  Imaginative  and  Intellectual 
Activity  of  the  Poet;  III,  Poetic  Feeling  and  Intuition;  IV, 
Aesthetic  Conceptions;  V,  Style;  VI,  Modern  German  Metres; 
VII,  Kinds  of  Poetry;  VIII,  The  Various  Aims  of  the  Science 
of  Literature. 


218  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§14. 

EMERSON,  R.  W.     Complete  Works.     Boston:  1883-93. 

See  the  Index  in  vol.  XII,  under  Literature,  for  suggestive 
utterances  on  the  meaning,  value,  and  uses  of  works  of  literary 
art.  Perhaps  the  best  single  essay  is  Thoughts  on  Modern 
Literature,  in  Natural  History  of  Intellect,  p.  171  (from  The 
Dial,  i:  137). 

FERRI,  E.     Les  criminels  dans  1'art  et  la  litterature.     Paris: 
1897. 

A  study  of  art  and  literature  from  the  point  of  view  of 
criminology,  by  a  leading  criminologist. 

FEUILLEE,  A.     Education  from  a  National  Standpoint.     Lond.: 
1892. 

See  Bk.  V,  chap.  IV,  for  a  discussion  of  the  relations  of 
literature  and  aesthetics. 

FROEHDE,  O.     Neue  Jahrb.f.  Philol.  und  Faedagogik,  147:  433 
Der  Begriff  und  die  Aufgabe  der  Literaturwissenschaft. 

An  attempt  to  supplement  the  methodology  of  Boeckh. 
GAUCKLER.     Le  beau  et  son  histoire.     Paris:  1873. 

Gauckler  calls  literature  in  general  I'art  fie  la  parole,  and 
treats  it  under  the  three  heads,  la  poesie,  l'art  oratoire,  and 
la  prose  ecrite.  See  pp.  178-197. 

GERBER,  G.    Die  Sprache  als  Kunst.    2  vols.    Bromberg:  1871. 

Pp.  43-122  of  Bd.  I  give  in  brief  the  author's  views  upon 
the  '  speech-art.' 

GERUZEZ,  E.    Cours  de  litterature,  rhdtorique,  poetique,  histoire 
litte'raire.     Paris. 

An  excellent  manual,  intended  for  beginners.  Part  II,  deal- 
ing with  literature,  has  passed  through  about  thirty  editions. 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  219 

GIBBON,  EDWARD.  Essai  sur  1'dtude  de  la  litterature.  (In 
Miscellaneous  Works.  3  vols.  Lond. :  1796.  Pp.  449- 
495-) 

The  student  will  find  this  famous  essay  interesting  because 
it  was  written  by  Gibbon  rather  than  because  it  contains  ideas 
that  he  can  use  in  his  researches.  Nevertheless,  some  of  the 
remarks  on  the  relation  of  literature  to  science  and  philosophy, 
and  on  the  interconnection  of  literary  thought  and  national  life, 
are  worth  pondering. 

GILMAN,  B.  I.     American  Journal  of  Psychology,  6 :  i   Syllabus 
of  Lectures  on  the  Psychology  of  Pain  and  Pleasure. 
Pp.  48-50  Literature. 

GIRARDIN,  ST.  MARC.  Essais  de  litterature  et  de  morale. 
2  vols.  Paris:  1876. 

Vol.  II,  p.  143  De  la  profession  d'homme  de  lettres. 

GREEK,  G.  DE.  Introduction  a  la  sociologie.  2  vols.  Bruxelles 
et  Paris:  1886-89. 

See  vol.  II,  pp.  187,  188,  for  a  brief  treatment  of  the  social 
aspects  of  literature. 

GROSSE,  ERNST.  Die  Literaturwissenschaft,  ihr  Ziel  und  ihr 
Weg.  1887. 

The  author's  aim  in  this  doctoral  thesis  is  to  formulate  a 
theory  of  literature  based  on  the  methods  of  the  natural 
sciences. 

HARTM-ANN,  E.  VON.     Aesthetik.     2  vols.     Berlin:  1887. 
See  vol.  II,  pp.  139-143,  554-556,  for  style  in  general. 

HEGEL.     Aesthetik.     (See  §  8,  p.  101.) 
Vol.  Ill,  pp.  220-282. 


220  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  14. 

Like  most  writers  on  aesthetics,  Hegel  has  chosen  poetry 
instead  of  literature  as  the  representative  of  the  speech-art. 
His  remarks  on  literature  are,  therefore,  incidental  to  his 
remarks  on  poetry. 

HIGGINSON,  T.  W.     Atlantic  Essays.     Boston:  1871. 
Pp.  23-47  Literature  as  an  art. 

The  author,  in  the  capacity  of  mentor  to  young  writers,  lays 
down  the  essential  requirements  of  good  literature,  which  he 
finds  to  be  simplicity,  freshness,  choice  of  words,  thoroughness. 

HUNT,  T.  W.     Studies  in  Literature  and  Style.     N.  Y.:   1890. 

The  main  object  of  the  author  is  to  present  the  characteristics 
of  literature  as  determined  by  the  personality  of  the  writer. 
Style  is  considered  under  eight  heads:  intellectual,  literary, 
impassioned,  popular,  critical,  poetic,  satirical,  humorous.  For 
a  definition  of  literature,  see  p.  7. 

JAMES,  W.     The   Principles    of    Psychology.     2   vols.     N.  Y. : 
1890. 

See  vol.  I,  pp.  236,  241,  245,  251—283;  vol.  II,  pp.  356— 358, 
364,  407,  for  suggestive  remarks  on  the  relations  of  thought 
and  language. 

JONSON,  BEN.     Timber,  or  Discoveries  made  upon  Men  and 
Matter.     Ed.  by  F.  E.  Schelling.      Boston:  1891. 

Observations,  generally  brief,  upon  a  great  variety  of  subjects 
pertaining  to  literature  and  style.  They  are  characterized  by 
acuteness  and  good  sense.  See  §  21,  B  2. 

JORDAN,  ALFRED.     Literature  in  Relation  to  Science.     Lond. : 
1891. 

An  attempt,  fairly  successful,  to  combine  the  definitions  of 
Brooke  and  Posnett. 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  221 

JOUBERT,  J.     Pensees.     2  vols.     Paris:  1880. 

Pp.  263-272  De  la  poesie,  273-300  Du  style,  300-341  Des  qualities 
de  1'ecrivain,  342—390  Jugements  litteraires. 

Contains  suggestive  thoughts  on  many  topics  of  literary 
theory. 

KAMES,  LORD.     Elements  of  Criticism. 
See  §§  2,  8. 

KORTING,G.  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  Romanischen 
Philologie.     Heilbronn:  1884. 

Erster  Theil,  pp.  63-82  Die  Litteratur ;    zweiter  Theil,  pp.  296- 
311  Die  Stylistik. 

The  broad  fields  of  literature  and  style  are  here  mapped  out 
for  the  student  in  an  instructive,  if  rigid  and  over-minute, 
fashion.  Korting's  treatment  may  profitably  be  compared  with 
that  of  Boeckh  and  of  Paul. 

KRANTZ,  E\     Essai  sur  1'esthe'tique  de  Descartes.     Paris:  1882. 
The  opening  chapter  points  out  the  conditions  of  literary 
growth  which  make  a  philosophy  of  literature  possible. 

LAURIE,  S.  S.     Lectures  on  Language  and  Linguistic  Method 

in  the  School.     Cambridge:  1890. 

For  an  excellent  discussion  of  language  as  literature,  from 
the  teacher's  point  of  view,  see  pp.  81-104. 

LECLERQ.     L'art  est  rationnel.     Bruxelles. 

For  a  rambling  essay  on  literature  as  an  art,  see  pp.  211—218. 

LEWES,  G.  H.  The  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature.  Ed. 
with  Introduction  and  Notes  by  F.  N.  Scott.  2d  ed. 
Boston:  1892.  (Originally  appeared  in  Fortn.  i :  85,  185, 
572,  687;  2:  257,  689.  Reprinted  by  A.  S.  Cook,  San 
Francisco,  1885,  and  by  W.  D.  Armes,  San  Francisco,  1891.) 
An  admirable  discussion  of  the  fundamental  principles  of 

literature. 


LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§14. 

LEWES,  G.  H.  Problems  of  Life  and  Mind.  3d  Series.  2  vols. 
Boston:  1879-80. 

See  Probl.  4,  chap.  V,  for  relations  of  thought  to  language. 

Lewes's  writings  are  especially  adapted  to  the  needs  of 
persons  who  are  beginning  the  study  of  literary  theory  and 
criticism.  They  combine  the  merits  of  soundness,  lucidity, 
and  interest. 

LONG,  G.     An  Old  Man's  Thoughts  about  Many  Things.     2d 
ed.     Lond. :  1872. 
Pp.  92-161  Style. 

This  essay  is  more  profitable  as  an  example  than  as  an 
exposition  of  style,  but  some  old  truths  are  so  freshly  stated  as 
to  have  the  force  of  new  ones. 

LONGINUS,  DIONYSIUS.  On  the  Sublime.  Trans,  by  H.  L. 
Havell.  Lond.:  1890. 

The  enthusiasm  and  catholic  taste  of  the  author,  whoever  he 
may  be,  of  this  little  treatise  have  made  a  lasting  place  for  it  in 
the  history  of  criticism.  Its  chief  value  at  the  present  time, 
when  its  most  notable  passages  have  become  rhetorical  common- 
places, is  that  it  shows  us  how  the  classic  literatures  appealed 
to  the  literary  sense  of  the  ancients.  On  the  meaning  of  the 
Greek  irepl  ityous,  see  De  Quincey's  Essay  on  Milton,  and  Minto's 
Manual  of  English  Prose,  p.  19,  note. 

LYTTON,  SIR  E.  B.     Caxtoniana.     2  vols.     Edinb. :  1863. 

See  vol.  II,  pp.  129—169,  for  some  interesting  remarks  On 
Certain  Principles  of  Art  in  Works  of  the  Imagination. 

LOTZE,  H.  Microcosmus.  Trans,  by  E.  Hamilton  and  E.  E.  C. 
Jones.  2  vols.  Edinb.:  1885. 

See  pp.  618—639  f°r  a  discussion  of  the  relations  of  thought 
and  language. 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  223 

McCoRMicK,  W.   S.     Three  Lectures  on    English  Literature. 

Lond.:  1889. 

The  opening  chapter,  on  English  Literature  and  University 
Education,  is  a  criticism  of  Professor  Freeman's  article  in 
Contcmp.  52  :  549. 

MABIE,  H.  W.     Short  Studies  in  Literature.     N.  Y.:  1891. 

The  author  announces  that  his  purpose  is  to  study  books  not 
as  fragments,  but  as  illustrations  of  the  art  of  literature  ;  but, 
owing  to  the  brevity  of  the  treatment,-  the  underlying  principles 
of  this  art  are  nowhere  worked  out  in  detail.  They  seem, 
however,  to  be  sound.  See  p.  5  for  a  definition  of  literature,' 
p.  29  for  a  discussion  of  literary  form,  and  p.  35  for  remarks  on 
personality  in  literature. 

MARMONTEL,  J.  F.     E"le'ments  de  litte'rature.     3  vols.     Paris: 
1846. 

Tome  I,  pp.  1-51  Essai  sur  le  gout,  pp.  204-219  Beau,  pp.  306-319 
Comedie,  pp.  319-324  Comique,  pp.  344-367  Critique;  T.  II, 
pp.  100-121  Epopee;  T.  Ill,  pp.  90-104  Pathetique,  pp.  137- 
208  Poesie,  poete,  poetique. 

This  work  is  a  kind  of  encyclopaedia  of  literature,  the  topics 
being  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  An  excellent  index  at 
the  end  of  each  volume  makes  of  it  as  perfect  a  reference  book 
as  the  character  of  its  contents  will  permit.  The  treatment  of 
the  topics  is  conventional. 

METHNER,  JUL.     Poesie  und  Prosa,  ihre  Arten'und  Formen. 
Halle:  1888. 

MINTO,  WM.     Manual  of  English  Prose  Literature.     Boston: 
1889. 

MINTO,  WM.    Characteristics  of  the  English  Poets  from  Chaucer 

to  Shirley.     Boston:  1891. 

See  the  introduction  to  the  Manual  of  Prose  and  the  remarks 
passim  in  the  Characteristics. 


224  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§14. 

MOIR,  GEO.  Poetry,  Romance,  and  Rhetoric.  Edinb.:  1851. 
(From  the  yth  ed.  of  the  Encycl.  Brit.) 

Moir  classes  fiction  with  poetry  rather  than  with  prose. 

MORLEV,  H.,  and  TYLER,  M.  C.  A  Manual  of  English  Litera- 
ture. N.  Y.:  1880. 

See  the  Introduction  for  a  definition  of  literature. 

MORLEV,  J.     On  the  Study  of  Literature.     Lond.:  1887. 

This  is  a  lecture  in  Morley's  best  style.  It  should  be  read 
by  every  student  of  literature.  See  pp.  38,  39,  for  definitions 
by  various  writers,  and  p.  40  for  Morley's  own  definition. 

MORLEV,  J.     Voltaire.     N.Y.:i872. 

See  pp.  13-15  for  a  definition  and  classification  of  literature. 

MULLER,  MAX.  The  Science  of  Thought.  2  vols.  N.  Y.: 
1887. 

Sets  forth  the  writer's  well-known  theory  of  the  identity  of 
thought  and  language. 

NETTLESHIP,  H.  The  Moral  Influence  of  Literature;  Classical 
Education  in  the  Past  and  Present.  Two  popular  addresses. 
Lond.:  1890. 

NEWMAN,  J.  'H.  The  Idea  of  a  University  Defined  and 
Illustrated.  Lond.:  1891. 

Cardinal  Newman's  Lecture  on  Literature  (pp.  268-294) 
treats  the  subject  in  a  refreshingly  broad  and  liberal  spirit. 
That  style  is  the  effluence  of  character,  and  not  merely  an 
external  decoration,  is  the  writer's  principal  contention. 

PALLEN,  COND£  B.     The  Philosophy  of  Literature.     Freiburg 
1897. 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  225 

PATER,  VV.     Appreciations;  with  an  Essay  on  Style.     Lond.: 

1889. 

The  essay  on  Style,  with  which  this  volume  opens,  was  first 
published  in  Fortn.  50:  728.  Structural  unity  pervading  all  the 
elements  of  composition,  from  the  largest  to  the  smallest,  is  the 
requirement  upon  which  the  author  most  strenuously  insists. 
For  the  quotations  from  Flaubert,  see  Flaubert's  Correspondence, 
i  Ser.  1830-50  (Paris:  1887).  On  Flaubert's  theory  of  art,  cf. 
Bourget's  Essais  de  psychologic  contemporaine,  pp.  156-173. 

PAUL,  H.    Grundriss  der  Germanischen  Philologie.    Methoden- 

lehre.     (See  §  2.) 

Under  the  heading  Litteraturgeschichte  Paul  writes  ably  of 
such  subjects  as  the  meaning  and  scope  of  literature,  its  classi- 
fications, its  elements,  its  relations  to  other  fields  of  culture,  etc. 
A  work  of  the  first  importance. 

PAUL,  H.    Principles  of  the  History  of  Language.    Trans,  from 

the  2d  ed.  by  H.  A.  Strong.     N.  Y.:  1889. 
Every  student  of  literature  should  make  himself  familiar  at 
least   with    the    Introduction    and   first  two  chapters   of   this 
admirable  work. 

RALEIGH,  WALTER.     Style.     Lond.:  1897. 

A  brilliantly  written,  novel,  and  suggestive  treatment  of  the 
subject. 

REN  AN,  E.     The  Future  of  Science.     Boston:  1893. 

Chaps.  VIII-XIV,  although  they  profess  to  deal  with  the 
science  of  philology,  abound  in  striking  and  suggestive  thoughts 
on  many  aspects  of  literary  theory. 

ROBERTSON,  J.  M.     New  Essays  towards  a  Critical  Method. 

Lond.:  1897. 

Contains  in  the  opening  essay  a  forcible  and  sympathetic 
exposition  of  the  method  of  Hennequin. 


226  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  14. 

RENTON,  W.     The  Logic  of  Style,  being  an  Introduction  to 

Critical  Science.     Lond. :  1874. 

This  is  an  able  examination,  from  a  philosophic  standpoint, 
of  some  of  the  leading  questions  of  style.  The  abstract  char- 
acter of  the  reasoning,  however,  and  the  highly  technical 
language  in  which  it  is  expressed,  make  the  work  hard  reading 
for  any  save  advanced  students. 

RICARDOU,    A.     La   critique    litteraire :    etude    philosophique. 

Avec  une  preface  de  M.  F.  Brunetiere.     Paris:  1896. 
See  pp.  161-271  for  a  readable  discussion  of  the  fundamental 
principles  of  literary  art. 

RUSKIN,  J.     Modern  Painters.     5  vols.     Orpington:  1887. 
RUSKIN,  J.     On  the  Old  Road.     3  vols.     Orpington:  1885. 

Ruskin's  remarks  on  the  grand  style,  in  the  opening  chapters 
of  vol.  Ill  of  Modern  Painters,  apply  as  well  to  literature  as  to 
painting,  and  in  chap.  I  the  illustrations  are  drawn  from  the 
former.  In  Fiction,  Fair  and  Foul  (in  On  the  Old  Road,  vol. 
II,  pp.  3-166,  reprinted  from  igth  Century,  7:  941,  8:  195,  394, 
748,  10  :  516),  the  tests  of  good  style  are  formulated  (pp.  87- 
92)  in  six  canons:  self-command,  brevity  and  simplicity,  emphatic 
and  clear  utterance,  spontaneity,  melody,  spiritual  content.  To 
illustrate  these  canons,  Ruskin,  with  characteristic  willfulness, 
has  chosen  passages  of  Shakespeare  which  few  besides  himself 
would  think  of  commending.  See  A.  S.  Cook's  Touchstones 
of  Poetry,  pp.  vii-ix,  12-16. 

SAINTE-BEUVE,  C.  A.     Causeries  du  Lundi.     3°  e'd.     15  vols. 

Paris:  1857-62. 

Sainte-Beuve's  contributions  to  the  theory  of  literature  must 
be  extracted  from  the  Causeries  by  a  process  of  inference. 
Only  in  three  or  four  instances  does  he  stop  the  steady  flow  of 
criticism  to  enlighten  the  reader  upon  his  methods  and  his 
working  basis.  One  of  these  pauses  occurs  in  vol.  Ill,  pp.  38- 


jj  14.]  REFERENCES.  227 

55,  where  a  classic  is  defined  (see  for  translation,  Morley,  On 
the  Study  of  Literature,  pp.  38,  39)  ;  another  is  in  vol.  XV, 
p.  345,  where  the  relations  of  art  and  ethics  are  referred  to ;  and 
still  another  is  p.  356  of  the  same  volume,  at  which  point  the 
authority  of  tradition  in  literature  is  briefly  discussed.  In  vol. 
Ill  of  the  Nouveaux  Lundis,  in  the  articles  on  Chateaubriand, 
Sainte-Beuve  sets  forth  his  system  of  procedure  at  some  little 
length;  but  naturally  he  is  more  concerned  here  with  a  theory 
of  criticism  than  with  a  theory  of  literature.  See  Dowden's 
article  on  Literary  Criticism  in  France,  Fortn.  52:  737,  esp. 
p.  740  (reprinted  in  New  Studies  in  Literature,  Lond. :  1895, 
p.  388). 

SALT,  H.  S.     New  Review,  4:19  The  Socialist  Ideal:  Litera- 
ture. 

The  writer's  main  contention  is  that  the  evils  of  modern 
literature  grow  out  of  an  individualistic  form  of  society.  The 
ideal  of  equality  will  put  new  life  into  literary  expression. 

SCHAFFLE,  A.  E.  F.      Bau  und   Leben   des  socialen   Korpers. 
4  vols.     Tubingen:  1881. 

Bd.  I,  p.  398  ff.;  Bd.  IV,  p.  70  ff.,  p.  129. 
An  original  treatment  of  the  social  function  of  literature. 

SCHERR,  JOH.     Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Literatur.     2  vols. 
Stuttgart:  1881,  1882. 

See  pp.  i,  2,  for  a  definition  and  classification  of  literature. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.    Sammtliche  Werke.    6  vols.    Leipz.:  1877. 
Bd.  VI,  pp.  536-581  Ueber  Schriftstellerei  und  Stil. 

SCHOPENHAUER,   A.     The   Art   of   Literature.     Ed.  by  F.   B. 

Saunders.     Lond.:  1891. 

Contains  readable,  often  brilliant,  essays  on  authorship, 
style,  men  of  learning,  genius,  etc. 


228  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§14. 

SHERMAN,  L.  A.  Analytics  of  Literature.  A  Manual  for  the 
Objective  Study  of  English  Prose  and  Poetry.  Boston: 
1893. 

An  attempt  to  apply  "  scientific  methods  "  to  the  study  of 
the  elements  and  sources  of  power  in  English  literature.  The 
results  of  the  author's  investigations  as  applied  to  prose  possess 
undoubted  value;  it  is  not  so  clear  that  he  has  made  substantive 
additions  to  the  theory  of  poetry.  Chap.  I  deals  with  literature 
and  its  divisions. 

SILL,  E.  R.     Atlantic,  56:  665  Principles  of  Criticism. 

A  valuable  paper.  Assuming  that  literature  takes  rank  among 
the  fine  arts,  the  writer  seeks  for  principles  broad  enough  to 
include  artistic  manifestations  in  any  medium.  Art  is  defined 
as  the  expressed  power  and  activity  of  the  human  spirit.  Like 
other  arts,  literature  gives  delight  because  it  satisfies  man's 
aspiration  for  full  and  abounding  life.  The  forms  of  literature 
must  be  ranked  according  to  their  expressiveness. 

SPENCER,  H.  The  Philosophy  of  Style.  Together  with  an 
Essay  on  Style  by  T.  H.  Wright.  Ed.  by  F.  N.  Scott.  2d 
ed.  Boston  11894.  ( First  published  in  Westm.Rm.,  October, 
1852 ;  republished  in  Essays :  Moral,  Political,  and  Aesthetic, 
and  Essays:  Scientific,  Political,  and  Speculative.) 

One  of  the  most  important  of  modern  contributions  to  the 
theory  of  style.  Spencer  attempts  to  explain  the  effect  of  both 
prose  and  poetry  upon  the  principle  that  that  language  is  most 
forcible  which  best  economizes  the  mental  energies  and  the 
mental  sensibilities.  In  order  to  a  correct  understanding  of 
the  essay  some  acquaintance  with  the  Spencerian  psychology 
is  necessary.  (See  References,  §  8.)  For  a  criticism  of 
Spencer's  theory  of  style,  see  the  essay  by  T.  H.  Wright 
(Macmillan,  37 :  78,  reprinted  in  the  edition  cited  above),  and 
Hiram  M.  Stanley's  Studies  in  the  Evolutionary  Psychology 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  229 

of   Feeling  (Lond.:    1895),   chap.  XVIII   The"  Psychology  of 
Literary  Style. 

SPENCER,  H.    Contemp.  68 :  228  (also  in  Pop.  Sci.  Mo.,  September, 

1895)  Orator  and  Poet,  Actor  and  Dramatist. 
A  brief  and  inadequate  consideration  of  the  part  played  in 
society  by  writers  and  actors. 

STAEL,    MME.    DE.      De    la    .itterature    considered   dans    ses 
rapports  avec  les  institutions  sociales.     Paris:   1845. 

Pp.  213-221  Preface  de  la  seconde  edition;   pp.  222-240  Discours 
preliminaire. 

The  purpose  of  the  work,  as  stated  by  the  author,  is  to 
examine  the  influence  of  religion,  manners,  and  laws  on  litera- 
ture, and  the  reciprocal  influence  of  literature  on  religion, 
manners,  and  laws.  The  portions  indicated  above  deal  with 
the  subject  in  a  theoretical  way. 

STANLEY,  HIRAM  M.     Studies  in  the  Evolutionary  Psychology 

of  Feeling.     Lond. :  1895. 

Chap.  XVIII,  on  the  Psychology  of  Literary  Style,  is  mainly 
an  examination  of  Spencer's  Philosophy  of  Style,  which  the 
writer  endeavors  to  supplement  at  certain  points.  The  treat- 
ment is  able  and  highly  suggestive. 

STEINTHAL,   H.     Zeitschrift  fur    Volkerpsychologie,  4:  465  Zur 

Stylistik. 

A  thoughtful  article,  written  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
'  folk-psychologist.'  The  subject  is  treated  first  historically,  then 
theoretically,  style  being  defined  as  a  relation  between  speech 
and  the  thing  expressed.  The  author  draws  a  careful  distinc- 
tion between  form  and  content,  and  discusses  with  some  fullness 
the  relation  of  one  to  the  other. 

STEINTHAL,  H.     Zeitschrift  fur  Volkerpsychologie,  6:  285  Poesie 
und  Prosa. 


230  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  14. 

Of  this  valuable  article  the  most  interesting  part  is  the  section 
entitled  '  Poetry  and  Prose  according  to  their  Purpose  and 
Content.' 

STEVENSON,  R.  L.     Contemp.  47:  548  On  Style  in  Literature. 

As  one  of  the  foremost  stylists  of  the  century,  Stevenson  is 
entitled  to  speak  upon  his  art  with  the  air  of  an  authority.  His 
essay  will  be  found  readable,  and  in  many  ways  suggestive;  but 
the  student  should  ask  himself  whether  the  author  does  not 
emphasize  form  at  the  expense  of  substance.  For  a  criticism 
of  Stevenson's  own  style  and  thought,  see  the  article  by  Wm. 
Archer  in  the  Critic,  8:  7,  19. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Essays  Speculative  and  Suggestive.     2  vols. 
London. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  256-331;  vol.  II,  pp.  1-30  Notes  on  Style. 

A  fairly  comprehensive  and  consistent  theory  of  style, 
expounded  in  the  florid  and  over-strenuous  manner  charac- 
teristic of  the  writer. 

TEN  BRINK,  B.     Ueber  die  Aufgabe  der  Litteraturgeschichte. 
Strassburg:  1891. 

On  pp.  1-2 1  the  author  outlines  clearly  and  interestingly  the 
elements  which  constitute  a  work  of  literature.  A  reading 
of  the  whole  of  this  brief  address  (28  pages)  is  warmly 
recommended. 

THOREAU,   H.  D.     Early  Spring  in  Massachusetts.     Boston: 
1894. 

See  p.  301  for  a  remarkable  passage  on  the  social  aspects 
of  literature. 

VINET,  ALEX.     Outlines  of  Philosophy  and  Literature.     2d  ed. 
Lond.:  1867. 

Pp.  457-639  Literature,  Poetry,  and  Eloquence. 


§  14.]  REFERENCES.  231 

Readable  but  not  especially  penetrating  remarks  upon  the 
philosophical  aspects  of  literature. 

WARNER,  CHAS.  D.     Literature  and  Life.     N.  Y.  :  1897. 

Delightfully  written  essays,  of  a  reflective  character,  on  the 
worth  of  literature  in  the  conduct  of  life,  on  the  relation  of 
literature  to  the  age  in  which  it  is  produced,  and  on  kindred 
topics. 

WEIL,  H.  The  Order  of  Words  in  the  Ancient  Languages 
Compared  with  that  of  the  Modern  Languages.  Trans,  by 
C.  W.  Super.  Boston:  1887. 

A  work  of  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject  of  which  it 
treats. 

WHITNEY,  W.  D.  Language  and  the  Study  of  Language.  N.  Y. : 
1867. 

Pp.  403-420. 
WHITNEY,  W.  D.    Life  and  Growth  of  Language.    N.  Y. :  1877. 

Pp.  1-13. 
WHITNEY,  W.  D.     «  Philology,'  in  the  Encycl.  Brit,  gth  ed. 

See  especially  p.  766  et  seq. 

The  writings  of  Professor  Whitney,  because  of  the  simplicity 
and  charm  of  their  style,  furnish  an  excellent  introduction  to 
the  study  of  questions  relating  to  language. 

WILSON,  WOODROW.  Mere  Literature  and  other  Essays.  Boston : 
1896. 

The  opening  essay,  which  gives  the  volume  its  title,  is  a 
spirited  plea  for  the  study  and  appreciation  of  literature  as 
literary  art. 

WORSFOLD,  W.  BASIL.  The  Principles  of  Criticism.  Lond. : 
1897. 


232  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§14. 

The  following  criticism  by  Dr.  F.  I.  Carpenter  in  Nation, 
65:  1691,  states  very  fairly  the  quality  of  Mr.  Worsfold's  book. 
It  does  not,  however,  deserve  the  commendation  here  given  for 
the  historical  character  of  its  method.  Addison  is  exalted 
altogether  out  of  his  place  —  Ben  Jonson,  Dryden,  Shaftesbury, 
Goldsmith,  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  Carlyle,  etc.,  are  wholly  or 
practically  ignored.  .  See  §  21,  B  2,  below.  "The  book  presents 
a  combination  of  an  analysis  of  the  leading  ideas  in  literary 
aesthetics  of  Aristotle  (superfluous  in  view  of  the  recent  work 
of  Mr.  Butcher),  Plato,  Addison,  Lessing,  Cousin,  Matthew 
Arnold,  and  others,  together  with  a  discursive  discussion  of 
current  topics  of  related  interest  in  the  review  style.  The 
original  '  principles  of  criticism,'  which  are  the  outcome  of  the 
last  four  chapters,  are  somewhat  obscure  and  indecisive. 

"  Mr.  Worsfold  waives  the  attempt  of  German  metaphysics 
at  a  '  transcendental '  aesthetics,  and  defends  '  psychological ' 
aesthetics  as  agreeing  both  with  Greek  experience  and  with 
sound  philosophy.  The  truth  of  art  and  the  truth  of  logic  and 
nature  are  not  the  same.  Art,  as  Bacon  maintained,  idealizes 
and  submits  the  shows  of  things  to  the  desires  of  the  mind, 
while  its  peculiar  faculty  is  the  imagination,  as  Addison  first 
demonstrated.  Plato  is  nearer  modern  ideas  than  Aristotle,  in 
that  he  emphasizes  the  test  of  truth  rather  than  the  test  of  form 
in  art.  Lessing  is  Aristotelian  in  concerning  himself  chiefly 
with  form  and  with  imitations  of  the  arts.  Cousin  returns  to 
the  idealist  or  Platonic  aesthetics ;  while  Matthew  Arnold  has 
been  most  conspicuous  among  recent  critics  in  subjecting  poetry 
to  the  tests  of  imagination  and  of  truth,  or,  in  other  words,  of 
,  the  application  of  moral  ideas  to  the  criticism  of  life.  Further 
than  this  there  are  chapters  devoted  to  the  topics  of  Poetic 
Justice,  of  The  Drama  as  a  Composite  Art,  of  The  Novel  as  a 
Form  of  Literature,  and  of  Authority  in  Literature  and  Art. 
The  later  chapters  are  full  of  a  clever  young  man's  confident 
modernity  of  view,  while  the  preceding  chapters  are  soundly 


§15, /-//.]  LITERATURE  AND  LANGUAGE.  — STYLE.          233 

historical  in  method.  The  most  striking  differentiae  of  the  plan 
of  the  book  as  a  whole  are  the  historical  importance  assigned 
to  Addison  and  to  Cousin,  and  the  gaps  resulting  from  neglect- 
ing the  contributions  of  other  modern  writers  who  are  quite  as 
important.  Addison  is  important  in  the  history  of  applied 
criticism  in  England,  but  in  aesthetic  theory  Mr.  Worsfold 
hardly  vindicates  the  large  claims  he  makes  for  him.  Although 
the  term  imagination  is  little  used  in  critical  discussion  before 
his  day,  the  essential  idea  of  the  faculty,  under  the  terms  'fancy ' 
(phantasy)  or  '  wit,'  is  common  enough  with  the  Elizabethan 
writers,  and  is  regarded  by  more  than  one  of  them  as  the 
ground  idea  of  the  poetic  faculty  and  function." 


§   15.     GENERAL  NOTE. 

/.  Literature  and  Language.  —  Additional  references  under 
this  head  are  :  O.  Jespersen,  Progress  in  Language  (Lond. : 
1894),  chaps.  I  and  IX  (delightful  reading,  and  a  work  of  the 
first  importance);  H.  Brunnhofer,  Deutsche  Revue,  1886,  III, 
pp.  83-99  Die  Aesthetik  der  Sprachen  ;  J.  M.  Baldwin,  Philos, 
Rev.  2  :  385  Internal  Speech  and  Song;  S.  Strieker,  Ueber  die 
Sprachvorstellungen  (Wien :  1880) ;  S.  Strieker,  Revue  Philos. 
22 :  i  De  la  parole  et  des  sons  interieurs ;  B.  Bourdon,  L'expres- 
sion  des  emotions  et  des  tendances  dans  le  langage  (Paris: 
1892). 

//.  Style.  —  The  advanced  student  who  desires  to  investigate 
some  problem  relating  to  literary  style  will  do  well  to  pursue 
a  course  of  reading  that  will  take  him  through  the  most  impor- 
tant of  "the  earlier  treatises  in  their  historical  order.  The  list 
is  a  very  long  one  and  might  easily  be  made  formidable,  since 
nearly  every  writer  on  aesthetics  or  rhetoric  has  touched  at 
least  briefly  upon  questions  of  style.  The  following  references, 
however,  will  perhaps  suffice  for  most  students:  (i)  Plato's 


234  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§15 

Ion,  Phaedo,  Symposium,  Gorgias ;  (2)  Aristotle's  Poetics  and 
Rhetoric;  (3)  Cicero's  De  Oratore,  Brutus,  and  De  Inventione 
Rhetorica;  (4)  Horace's  Ars  Poetica;  (5)  Quintilian's  Institutes; 
(6)  Longinus  on  the  Sublime;  (7)  Vida's  De  Arte  Poetica;  (8) 
Sidney's  Apologie  for  Poetry;  (9)  Webbe's  Discourse  of  English 
Poetrie;  (10)  Puttenham's  Arte  of  English  Poetrie;  (i  i)  Jonson's 
Discoveries;  (12)  Boileau's  L'Art  poetique;  (13)  Roscommon's 
Essay  on  Translated  Verse;  (14)  Addison's  Spectator,  Nos.  411- 
421  ;  (15)  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism;  (16)  Voltaire's  article  on 
'  Style,'  and  Montesquieu's  article  on  'Gout,'  in  the  Encyclope'die 
methodique;  (17)  Blair's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric;  (18)  Constable's 
Reflections  on  Accuracy  of  Style;  (19)  Johnson's  Lives  of  the 
Poets;  (20)  Lord  Kames's  Elements  of  Criticism;  (21)  Camp- 
bell's Philosophy  of  Rhetoric. 

In  the  discussion  of  national  styles,  if  it  is  desired  to  make 
the  investigation  thorough,  information  should  be  sought  in  such 
works  as  BrownelPs  Characteristics  of  the  French,  Hamerton's 
French  and  English,  Baring-Gould's  Germany,  Present  and 
Past,  Andrew  D.  White's  The  New  Germany,  and  similar 
monographs;  and  an  attempt  should  be  made  to  connect  literary 
characteristics  with  peculiarities  of  the  social  or  industrial  life 
of  the  people. 

The  following  references  on  the  general  subject  of  Style  con- 
tain suggestions  of  greater  or  less  value :  H.  Liers,  Neuc  Jahrb. 
f.  Philol.  u.  Paed.  135:  68 1  Zur  Geschichte  der  Stilarten; 
W.  Forsyth,  Essays  Critical  and  Narrative  (Lond. :  1874), 
p.  162 ;  W.  Wackernagel,  Poetik,  Rhetorik,  und  Stilistik  (2.  Aufl. 
Halle:  1888),  p.  412  (an  excellent  handling  of  the  subject); 
E.  B.  Condillac,  CEuvres(io  vols.  Paris:  1798),  vol.  VII,  pp. 
337-424  Du  caractere  du  style,  pp.  429-443  Dissertation  sur 
1'harmonie  du  style ;  Sir  E.  B.  Lytton,  Caxtoniana  (2  vols. 
Edinb. :  1863),  vol.  I,  pp.  123-153  On  Style  and  Diction; 
K.  F.  Becker,  Der  deutsche  Stil  (3.  Aufl.  Leipz.:  1884);  Em. 
Zanella,  Lingua  e  Stile  (Roma:  1886);  J.  Swift,  Letter  to  a 


///.]  FIGURES.  235 

Young  Clergyman  (contains  a  famous  definition  of  style)  ;  Ferd. 
Loise,  Traite  de  litterature:  Les  lois  du  style  (Bruxelles  :  1887); 
F.  Harrison,  igth  Cent.  43  : 932  On  Style  in  English  Prose. 

///.  Figures.  —  The  following  bibliography  of  figures  is 
taken,  with  some  additions,  from  Miss  Gertrude  Buck's  Figures 
of  Rhetoric:  A  Psychological  Study  (Contributions  to  Rhetorical 
Theory,  No.  i,  edited  by  F.  N.  Scott)  : 

Ancient  Writers.  —  Among  the  ancients,  the  observations  upon 
figures  of  Aristotle,  Cicero,  and  Quintilian  outweigh  in  value  those  of 
all  the  rest.  For  the  views  of  Aristotle,  see  the  Rhetoric,  Bk.  Ill, 
chaps.  X,  XI ;  but  cf.  also  Poetics,  chaps.  XXI,  XXII.  Cicero  speaks 
of  figures  briefly  in  Orator  27,  and  more  at  length  in  De  Oratore  38- 
43.  The  remarks  of  Quintilian  will  be  found  in  the  Institutes,  Bk. 
VIII,  chap.  VI,  and  Bk.  IX,  chaps.  I-III.  Lesser  rhetoricians  who 
wrote  treatises  on  figures  are  Alexander,  Phoebammon,  Tiberius, 
Herodianus,  Zonaeus,  Tryphon  (each  the  author  of  a  work  entitled 
'  Concerning  Figures  ') ;  Gregorius  Corinthius,  Cocondrius,  Georgius 
Choeroboscus  (each  the  author  of  a  work  entitled  '  Concerning 
Tropes');  and  Polybius  Sardianus,  author  of  a  work  entitled  'Con- 
cerning Schematism.'  These  are  Greek  writers  and  may  be  consulted 
in  Walz's  Rhetores  Graeci.  For  the  lesser  Latin  rhetoricians,  Rutilius 
Lupus,  Rufinianus,  Aquila  Romanus,  and  others,  see  Halm's  Rhetores 
Latini  Minores. 

Modern  Writers.  —  Du  Marsais  was  one  of  the  first  to  lay  stress 
upon  the  fact  that  figures  of  speech  are  not  '  deviations  '  from  what 
is  natural  or  ordinary.  "  Figures,"  he  says,  "removed  from  the 
ordinary  method  of  speaking  should  be  regarded  as  ornamental  affec- 
tations." Herbert  Spencer  offered  the  first  adequate  scientific  expla- 
nation of  figurative  effects.  Bain's  classification  has  perhaps  been 
more  widely  accepted  than  any  other.  The  remaining  writers  are  too 
numerous  to  distinguish,  except  by  an  occasional  passing  comment. 

J.  Q.  Adams,  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and  Oratory,  vol.  II,  Lects. 
30-34 ;  H.  Arendt,  Die  Metaphern  in  den  dramatischen  Werken 
Corneilles  (Marburg:  1889);  H.  Arminius,  Die  Tropen  und  Figuren 
(Innsbruck:  1890);  Atlantic  Mo.  73:  574  American  Metaphor;  A. 


236  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§15. 

Bain,  Engl.  Comp.  and  Rhet,  vol.  I,  pp.  135-232;  J.  Bascom,  Philos. 
of  Rhet,  pp.  244-246;  Arlo  Bates,  Talks  on  Writing  English  (Boston: 
1896),  pp.  96-106;  J.  Bauer,  Das  Bild  in  der  Sprache  (Ansbach: 
1878,  1889);  Bede,  De  Schematis  et  Tropis  Sacrae  Scripturae  Liber; 
A.  Biese,  Das  Metaphorische  in  der  dichterischen  Phantasie;  A.  Biese, 
Die  Philosophic  des  Metaphorischen  (Hamburg:  1893);  Blackivood's 
Mag.  18:  719  On  the  Use  of  Metaphors;  H.  Blair,  Lects.  on  Rhet. 
and  Belles  Lettres,  Lects.  14-18;  C.  B.  Bradley,  Mod.  Lang.  Notes, 
i:  140  The  Classification  of  Rhetorical  Figures;  A.  Braun,  Versuch 
iiber  die  Tropen  (Miinnerstadt:  1847);  F.  Brinkmann,  Die  Metaphern 
(Bonn:  1878.  Cf.  Herrig's  Archi-v,  54:  155,  337,  55:  327,  56:  343, 
58:  193)  ;  F.  Brunetiere,  Rev.  d.  D.  Mondes,  i  fdvr.  1888  Les  me"ta- 
phores  de  Victor  Hugo;  G.  Campbell,  Philos.  of  Rhet,  Bk.  Ill,  chap. 
I;  G.  R.  Carpenter,  Exercises  in  Rhet.  (Adv.  Course),  pp.  196-200; 
W.  Caspers,  Ueber  die  Tropen  und  Figuren  (Recklinghausen:  1873); 
A.  Darmsteter,  La  vie  des  mots  (Paris:  1887),  pp.  45-72  (a  highly 
interesting  chapter  on  the  way  in  which  words  change  in  sense  from 
literal  to  figurative);  A.  Dathi,  Libellus  de  variis  loquendi  figuris 
(Ferrariae:  1471);  H.  N.  Day,  Art  of  Discourse,  pp.  313-331;  E. 
Degenhardt,  Die  Metapher  bei  den  Vorlaufern  Molieres  (Marburg: 
1888);  Jas.  De  Mille,  Elements  of  Rhet.,  pp.  87-203  (gives  on  p.  91 
eight  schemes  of  classification);  Robt.  Dodsley,  Rhet.  and  Poetry 
(Boston:  1796);  F.  C.  Doyle,  Introd.  to  the  Study  of  Rhet,  pp.  80- 
103;  C.  C.  Du  Marsais,  Des  Tropes  (CEuvres,  vol.  Ill);  J.  Earle, 
English  Prose,  pp.  234-253;  E.  Elster,  Prinzipien  der  Litteraturwis- 
senschaft  (Halle:  1897),  Bd.  I,  pp.  374-394;  D.  Erasmus,  De  Para- 
bolis  sive  similibus  (opera,  vol.  I,  p.  557);  H.  W.  Frost,  Galaxy, 
24:  204  Figures  of  Speech;  J.  P.  Fruit,  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,?.:  251  The 
Evolution  of  Figures  of  Speech;  J.  F.  Genung,  Practical  Rhet,  pp.  85- 
107;  G.  Gerber,  Die  Sprache  als  Kunst  (2  vols.  Bromberg:  1871. 
The  greater  part  of  this  large  work  is  devoted  to  figures);  O.  Gold- 
smith, Essays,  Essay  21  On  the  Use  of  Metaphors  ;  H.  E.  Greene, 
Pubs.  Mod.  Lang.  Assoc.,  vol.  VIII  (1893.  A  Grouping  of  Figures 
of  Speech,  based  on  the  Principle  of  their  Effectiveness);  P.  Gross, 
Die  Tropen  und  Figuren  (Leipz. :  1888.  A  text-book  for  use  in 
Greek  and  Latin  classes);  F.  B.  Gummere,  The  Anglo-Saxon  Meta- 
phor (maintains  that  the  metaphor  is  an  earlier  form  of  expression 


///•]  FIGURES.  237 

than  the  simile);  F.  B.  Gummere,  Poetics,  pp.  83-132;  F.  B.  Gum-  ^ 
mere,  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  \ :  83  Metaphor  and  Poetry;  J.  A.  Guyet, 
L'e'le'gance:  Dialogue  sur  1'emploi  des  figures  dans  la  conversation 
(Paris:  1858);  E.  E.  Hale,  Jr.,  Constructive  Rhetoric  (N.  Y.:  1896), 
pp.  248-298;  J.  M.  Hart,  Handbook  of  Engl.  Comp.,  pp.  177- 
192  (classifies  figures  as  objective  and  subjective);  W.  C.  Hazlitt, 
Offspring  of  Thought,  p.  285;  F.  H.  Hedge,  Atheism  in  Philosophy 
and  other  Essays,  p.  306  Irony;  Hegel,  Aesthetik,  vol.  I,  p.  498,  vol. 
Ill,  p.  282;  H.  Henkel,  Das  Goethesche  Gleichnis  (Halle:  1886); 
Hense,  Poetische  Personification  in  griech.  Dichtung  (Halle:  1868); 
A.  S.  Hill,  Foundations  of  Rhet.,  pp.  192-1 96  (on  the  force  and  office 
of  figures)  ;*A.  S.  Hill,  Principles  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  87-99  Tropes  ;  D.  V 
J.  Hill,  Science  of  Rhetoric,  pp.  203-243;  A.  Hirzel,  Gleichnisse  und 
Metaphern  im  Rigveda  (Leipz.:  1890);  H.  Hoffding,  Outlines  of 
Psychology,  pp.  153-154;  J.  P.  Huber,  Zu  den  platonischen  Gleich- 
nissen  (Passau:  1879);  W.James,  Lectures  on  the  Figurative  Lan- 
guage of  the  Holy  Scriptures  (Lond.:  1821);  Kames,  Elements  of 
Criticism,  chap.  XX;  C.  F.  Koch,  Figuren  und  Tropen  (Jena:  1880); 
G.  Kohfeldt,  Zeitschr.  f.  Philos.  tt.  Philos.  Kritik,  N.  F.  103  :  221 
Zur  Aesthetik  der  Metapher  (one  of  the  latest  and  ablest  contributions 
to  the  philosophy  of  metaphor);  D.  Krupp,  Homerische  Gleichnisse 
(Zweibriicken:  1882);  E.  'K.usz\,Herrig's  Archiv,  53:241  Ueber  Schil- 
lers  Gleichnisse  ;  H.  R.  Lang,  Am.  Journ.  Philol.  6:  74  On  Spanish 
Metaphors;  Langen,/0^r£.  f.  Philol.  u.  Paed.  125:  673,  753  Meta- 
pher von  Plautus  bis  Terentius ;  G.  H.  Lewes,  Principles  of  Success 
in  Literature,  pp.  69-78  (principally  on  imagery,  but  indirectly  of  much 
value);  Lingenberg,  Platonische  Bilder  und  Sprichworter  (Koln : 
1872);  D.  N.  Lord,  Laws  of  Figurative  Language;  W.  P.  Lunt,  Chr. 
Examiner,  68:  390  Figurative  Language;  K.  Maass,  Ueber  Metapher 
und  Allegoric  im  deutschen  Sprichwort  (Leipz.:  1891);  J.  G.  R. 
McElroy,  Structure  of  English  Prose,  pp.  235-246  ;  Magdeburg, 
Ueber  Bilder  und  Gleichnisse  bei  Euripides  (Danzig:  1882-88); 
Marheirreke,  Herrig's  Archiv,  51 :  173  Ueber  die  Shakespeare'schen 
Gleichnisse;  Marmontel,  Elements  de  litte'rature,  vol.  II,  p.  185 ;AV.  f- 
E.  Mead,  Elementary  Compos,  and  Rhet.,  pp.  40,  41,  53,  54;  Meyer, 
Vergl.  und  Metapher  bei  Moliere  ;  Meyer,  Herrig's  Archiv,  20:  174 
Begriindung  d.  Redefiguren ;  W.  Minto,  Manual  of  Prose  Literature, 


238  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  15. 

pp.  11-14;  Max  Muller,  Lects.  on  the  Science  of  Language,  2d  Sen, 
p.  351 ;  Max  Miiller,  Science  of  Thought,  vol.  II,  pp.  481-512;  Max 
Muller,  Fortn.  46:  61 7  Metaphor  as  a  Mode  of  Abstraction;  F.  Niggli, 
Ueber  die  Redefiguren  und  deren  Behandlung  in  der  Schule  (Aaran: 
1871);  R.  Noel,  Fortn.  5:  670  Use  of  Metaphor  and  Pathetic  Fallacy 
in  Poetry  ;JG.  C.  D.  Odell,  Development  of  Simile  and  Metaphor  from 
the  Ballad  Poetry  to  Shelley  (Columbia  University,  Thesis);  H.  Paul, 
Principles  of  the  History  of  Language,  chap.  IV,  Change  in  Word- 
significance  (highly  suggestive);  J.  Rappold,  Die  Gleichnisse  bei 
Aeschylus,  Sophokles  u.  Euripides  (1876-78;  also,  Beitrage  zur 
Kenntnis  der  Gleichnisse  u.  s.  w.,  Wien:  1886);  W.  C.  Robinson, 
Forensic  Oratory,  §§  290-298;  Rofsler,  Beitrag  zur  Lehre  von  den 
Tropen  (Budweis:  1853);  A.  Schopenhauer,  The  World  as  Will  and 
Idea,  vol.  I,  p.  305  Allegory;  Schiirmeyer,  Vergl.  u.  Met.  bei  Racine 
(Marburg:  1886);  F.  N.  Scott  and  Jos.  V.  Denney,  Composition- 
Rhetoric  (Boston:  1897),  pp.  219-225  Imaginative  Expressions;  L.  A. 
Sherman,  Analytics  of  Literature,  pp.  60-86,  399,  400  (distinguishes 
figures  based  on  (i)  imaginative  processes  in  which  spiritual  identity 
is  discerned,  and  (2)  imaginative  processes  in  which  spiritual  likeness 
is  discerned);  H.  Spencer,  Philos.  of  Style,  pp.  21-28,  38-40;  J. 
Stirling,  System  of  Rhetoric,  containing  all  tropes  and  figures  neces- 
sary to  illustrate  the  classics  (Lond.:  1764);  Stoessel,  D.  Bild.  d. 
altprovenz.  Lyrik  (Marburg:  1886);  Theo.  and  Lit.  J  I.  3:  613  Objec- 
tions to  Figurative  Language,  4:  687  Figurative  Lang,  of  Scripture; 
A.  Tompkins,  Science  of  Discourse,  pp.  366-420;  K.  Tumlirz,  Tropen 
u.  Figuren  (Prag  :  1883);  W.  Wackernagel,  Poetik,  Rhetorik  und 
Stilistik  (2.  Aufl.  Halle  a.  S.:  1888),  pp.  501-535;  Victoria  Welby, 
Monist,  3:510  Meaning  and  Metaphor:  B.  Wendell,  English  Composi- 
tion, pp.  245-261  (treats  figures,  after  A.  S.  Hill,  as  a  means  of  secur- 
ing force  ;  the  remarks  on  the  uselessness  of  the  distinction  between 
metonymy  and  synecdoche  are  judicious);  K.  Weyman,  Studien  iiber 
die  Figur  der  Litotes  (I.  Allgemeiner  Theil.  Miinchen:  1886);  Whately, 
Elements  of  Rhetoric,  pt.  Ill,  chap.  II,  §§  2,  3;  Whitney,  Life  and 
Growth  of  Language,  pp.  85-89;  H.  F.  Wilhelmi,  Von  den  Tropen 
(Heidelberg:  1839);  H.  F.  Wilhelmi,  Von  den  Figuren  der  Wort- 
wiederholung  (Heidelberg :  1841). 


7F.]  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERATURE.  239 

IV.  Classification  of  Literature.  —  At  the  close  of  his  essay 
on  Style,  Walter  Pater  suggests  a  division  of  literature  into 
great  literature  and  good  literature.  The  basis  of  the  classifi- 
cation is  given,  but  the  idea  is  not  developed.  To  pursue  the 
suggestion  further,  on  philosophical  grounds,  showing  the  value 
of  the  distinction  and  illustrating  it  by  examples  taken  from 
many  literatures,  will  prove  an  interesting  and  profitable  task. 
It  will  be  found  to  involve  questions  regarding  the  ethical  value 
of  art  which  can  be  answered  only  by  a  careful  study  of  the 
appropriate  references  under  §  8.  See  also,  on  this  point, 
Matthew  Arnold's  remark  on  Shakespeare's  art,  in  Mixed 
Essays,  p.  193,  and  M.  Thompson's  Ethics  of  Literary  Art 
(Hartford:  1893). 

The  methodological  works  of  the  German  philologists  contain 
interesting  attempts  at  philosophical  classification.  One  of  the 
simplest  is  that  of  August  Boeckh  (Encyklopadie  und  Metho- 
dologie  der  Philologischen  Wissenschaften,  pp.  144-146,  614- 
6 1 6).  It  may  be  presented  in  outline  as  follows  : 


Objective. 

Subjective. 

Subjective-  Objective. 

Poetry. 

Epic. 

Lyric. 

Dramatic. 

Prose. 

Historical. 

Philosophical. 

Rhetorical. 

As  a  specimen  of  a  more  complex  and  systematic  classifica- 
tion, the  following  outline,  much  abbreviated,  is  reproduced 
from  Korting's  Encyklopadie  und  Methodologie  der  Roma- 
nischen  Philologie,  pp.  63-82. 1 

1.  Literature  in  a  wide  sense  includes  the  totality  of  written 
works  produced  in  a  given  time  and  place.  According  to  its 

1  For  the  application  of  this  system  to  Romance  literature,  see  the 
amazing  list  on  pp.  444-454, —  a  highly  characteristic  product  of  the 
Teutonic  intellect. 


240  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  15. 

purpose  and  its  content,  literature  in  this  sense  may  be  classi- 
fied as  follows  : 

A.  Works  whose  purpose  is  to  present  the  real. 

1.  Compositions  whose  sole  purpose  is  practice  in  penman- 
ship   and   in    the    written    expression    of   thought,   e.g.    school 
exercises. 

2.  Records  of  facts,  including 

a.  Writings  of  a  private  character  not  intended  for  publi- 

cation, e.g.  private  letters,  accounts,  diaries,  etc. 

b.  Writings  of  a  private  (personal)  character  intended  for 

publication,  e.g.  mortuary  inscriptions,  lampoons,  etc. 

c.  Writings  of  an  official  character  not  intended  for  publi- 

cation, e.g.  deeds,  passports,  secret  treaties,  etc. 

d.  Writings  of  an  official  character  intended  for  publica- 

tion, e.g.  laws,  public  inscriptions. 

e.  Writings  of  a  general  character,  intended  for  publica- 

tion, e.g.  political  and  local  news,  statistics,  geographi- 
cal and  historical  works  (in  which  the  presentation 
of  facts  and  not  of  the  inner  relation  of  facts  is  the 
main  purpose),  parliamentary  reports,  etc. 

3.  Works  intended  to  give  instruction  about  matters  of  fact, 
including 

#.    Text-books  for  the  schools. 

b.  Books  on  scientific  or  technical  matters  designed  for 

the  educated  public,  together  with  travels,  popular 
histories,  etc. 

c.  Compendiums  for   specialists  in  certain  sciences   and 

technical  subjects. 

4.  Works  intended  to  amuse  and  entertain,  as  collections  of 
anecdotes,  riddles,  comedies  (without  moral  purpose),  etc. 

B.  Works  whose  purpose  is  to  present  the  ideal. 

i.  Writings  which  express  and  communicate  subjective 
reflections  upon  the  relations  of  personal  life,  e.g.  lyric  poems, 
reflective  letters,  etc. 


7F.]  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERATURE.  241 

2.  Criticism,  which  may  be 

a.  Direct,  as  in  aesthetic  and  philosophical  critiques,  or 

b.  Indirect,  as  in  Utopias  (so-called),  fairy  stories,  idyls, 

moralizing  novels,  and  the  like,  in  which  the  defi- 
ciencies of  the  actual  are  contrasted  with  the  perfec- 
tions of  the  ideal. 

c.  Negative,  or  destructive. 

d.  Positive,  or  constructive. 

3.  Writings  which  tend  to  widen  the  scope  of  human  knowl- 
edge, such  as  the  great  contributions  to  science. 

4.  Writings   which   tend  to  uplift   and   refine   man's   moral 
nature,  including 

a.  Writings  whose  purpose  is  ethical,  either 

(1)  Directly,  or 

(2)  Indirectly. 

b.  Writings  whose  purpose  is  religious,  either 

(1)  Directly,  or 

(2)  Indirectly. 

II.  In  a  narrower  sense  literature  is  the  totality  of  written 
works  produced  in  a  given  place  and  time  in  which  a  people 
have  found  expression  for  their  thoughts  and  feelings  about  the 
ideal.  Taken  in  this  sense,  literature  may  be  classified  as 
follows  : 

A.  Works  of  the  understanding,  or  scientific  works. 

B.  Works  of  the  imagination,  or  poetical  works. 

Korting  also  classifies  literature  according  to  its  form.  The 
form  of  literature  is  threefold:  (i)  material,  relating  to  the 
division  and  arrangement  of  the  subject-matter;  (2)  linguistic, 
relating  4:o  the  choice  and  syntax  of  words  and  the  combination 
of  sentences  ;  (3)  rhythmical,  relating  to  the  musical  quality  of 
speech.  According  to  material  form,  literature  may  be  divided 
into 

A.   Works  composed  artistically. 


242  LITERARY   CRITICISM.  [§  15. 

B.    Works  not  composed  artistically. 

According  to  linguistic  form,  literature  may  be  divided  into 

A.  Logical  discourse.1 

B,  Aesthetic  discourse. 

According  to  rhythmical  form,  literature  may  be  divided  into 

A.  Free,  or  unmetrical  discourse  (prose). 

B,  Metrical  discourse  (poetry). 

Finally,  viewing  works  according  to  both  form  and  content, 
four  classes  of  ideal  literature  may  be  distinguished  : 

1.  Scientific  works  in  which  the  material  and  linguistic  form 
are  logical,  the  rhythmical  form  free. 

2.  Scientific  works  in  which  the  material  and  linguistic  form 
are  aesthetic,  the  rhythmical  form  free. 

3.  Poetical  works  in  which  the  material  and  linguistic  form 
are  aesthetic,  the  rhythmical  form  free,  e.g.  dramas  in  prose. 

4.  Poetical  works  in  which  the  material  and  linguistic  form 
are  aesthetic,  the  rhythmical  form  metrical. 

The  student  may  also  consult  H.  Paul,  Grundriss  der  ger- 
manischen  Philologie,  Methodenlehre,  p.  216  et  seq.;  F.  Blass, 
Hermeneutik  und  Kritik  (in  Iwan  Miiller's  Handbuch,  Bd.  I, 
pp.  127-272;  see  §  2). 

V.  Classification  of  Literary  Theory. —  Before  passing,  as 
in  §§  19-24,  to  Poetry,  Poetics,  and  Versification,  attention  must 
be  directed  to  the  necessity  of  discrimination  between  the  term 
Poetics  and  the  terms  more  or  less  involved  in  the  concep- 
tion of  aesthetics:  'Stylistic,'  Rhetoric,  Metric,  etc.  The  sub- 
ject is  discussed  by  Elze  (Grundr.  d.  Engl.  Philol.,  pp.  342- 
360  Stilistik,  361-362  Metrik)  and  by  Boeckh  (Encyklopadie, 

1  In  the  original : 

a.  In  sachlicher  Redeform. 

b.  In  aesthetischer  Redeform  abgefasste  Litteraturwerke. 

By  'logical'  discourse  is  meant  discourse  that  aims  primarily  at  clearness  and 
intelligibility. 


V.~\  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY   THEORY.  243 

p.  810).  The  latter  had  included  Stilistik  (the  theory  of  style) 
under  grammar,  because,  in  his  opinion,  it  held  the  same  rela- 
tion to  syntax  that  syntax  did  to  etymology ;  but  Elze  proceeds 
to  show  (p.  323)  that  '  stylistic '  is  no  more  closely  connected 
with  syntax  than  it  is  with  lexicography.  And  he  concludes 
that  '  stylistic  '  should  be  regarded  as  a  discipline  entirely  sepa- 
rate from  grammar.  Adopting  Wackernagel's  definition  of 
style  (Poetik,  Rhetorik,  und  Stilistik,  p.  112,  2.  Aufl.  Halle: 
1889),  "the  method  of  representation  possible  to  language 
according  to  the  conditions  imposed  by  the  personality  of  the 
artist,  and  by  the  content  and  purpose  of  the  object  represented," 
Elze  approves  of  the  following  distinction:  Style  is  subjective 
when  it  is  regarded  in  its  character  of  individual  expression 
resting  upon  individuality  (personal  peculiarity)  of  thought,  — 
though  both  of  these  factors  are,  in  turn,  influenced  by  the 
general  culture  and  the  stylistic  temperament  of  the  people  and 
the  period  under  consideration.  Style  is  objective  in  so  far  as 
it  is  determined  by  the  laws  of  a  literary  species,  and  in  so  far 
as  it  follows  methods  dictated  by  the  aim  of  the  species  in 
question.  These,  then,  may  be  called  the  Unities  of  Style,  — 
subjective  and  objective.  Style  as  represented  by  these  unities 
is  found  in  both  poetry  and  prose. 

Boeckh,  too,  had  drawn  a  similar  distinction  showing  the 
presence  of  both  unities  in  both  kinds  of  composition.  In  the 
following  remarks  about  style  and  manner  the  characteristics 
assigned  to  style  are  rather  those  of  the  subjective  unity;  those 
to  manner,  of  the  objective:  "  Style  is  Nature;  it  proceeds  from 
the  culture  of  the  period,  from  circumstances,  and  from  the 
character  of  the  individual,  but  it  may  be  also  heightened  by 
art,  as  was  the  case  with  Herodotus.  Manner,  on  the  other 
hand,  is  the  imitation  of  a  by-gone  style  the  conditions  of  whose 
existence  no  longer  exist.  .  .  .  Style  springs  from  an  inspira- 
tion that  is  begotten  of  existing  circumstances ;  manner  apes 
but  is  uninspired  because  the  conditions  fail,  or  the  author  him- 


244  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§15. 

self  "  (p.  248).  With  regard  to  the  external  limitations  of  style 
the  same  author  expresses  himself  (p.  144  ff.,  648)  to  the 
effect  that  the  objective  unity  of  the  literary  production  is  form, 
prosaic  or  poetic,  decided  in  accordance  with  the  psychological 
faculty  to  which  the  author  appeals.  "  The  purpose  of  speech 
is  to  express  thought  ;  and  thoughts  are  expressed  for  compre- 
hension either  by  the  understanding  or  by  the  imagination.  If 
by  the  former,  we  have  prose  ;  if  by  the  latter,  poetry." 

But  while  poetry  and  prose  are  the  forms  of  the  objective 
unity  of  the  literary  production,  the  choice  between  these  forms 
is  determined  by  the  quality  of  the  stylist,  —  that  is  to  say,  by 
the  nature  of  the  thought  that  the  author  would  express.  For 
there  are  qualities  of  style,  subjective  and  objective,  as  well  as 
unities;  and  these  qualities,  combined  in  various  proportions, 
decide  the  species  of  objective  form,  and  the  subspecies,  which 
shall  suit  the  author's  thought.  Sometimes  this  thought  is  a 
concept  to  which  sense  impression  is  subordinate,  —  therefore 
a  thought,  impersonal,  objective  in  quality,  and  demanding 
impersonal  or  objective  expression.  Sometimes  the  thought  is 
an  imaginative  or  emotive  ideal,  —  therefore  personal  or  subjec- 
tive in  quality,  and  demanding  a  symbolic  form  that  may  appeal 
to  the  imagination  of  the  reader.  What  the  objective  unity  of 
the  style  shall  be  is  a  question  of  proportion  depending  upon 
the  purpose  and  the  quality  of  the  author's  thought.  If  the 
purpose  is  to  appeal  to  understanding,  then  the  objective  unity 
of  the  style  is  that  of  prose  ;  if  to  imagination,  then  poetry. 
According  to  the  quality  of  the  author's  thought,  the  sub- 
species vary  in  prose  and  in  poetry.  If,  in  accordance  with  the 
purpose,  the  objective  form  is  prose,  then  the  subspecies  will 
be  historical  narrative  when  the  quality  of  the  thought  is 
impersonal,  or  objective  ;  and  it  will  be  philosophical  disquisi- 
tion when  the  quality  of  the  thought  is  of  inner  or  subjective 
relations.  If,  in  accordance  with  the  purpose,  the  external 
unity  is  that  of  poetry,  then  an  impersonal  or  objective  quality 


PI]  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERACY  THEORY.  245 

of  thought  will  demand  the  epical  subspecies  of  expression ; 
but  a  personal  or  subjective  quality  will  choose  the  lyrical. 
When  the  subjective,  or  personal,  conviction  or  ideal  tries  to 
realize  itself  by  finding  expression  in  the  conduct  of  others, 
then  there  results  in  prose,  oratory ;  in  poetry,  the  drama. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  individuality  and  the  pur- 
pose of  the  author,  the  quality  of  his  thought,  and  the  objective 
characteristics  of  literary  species  and  form,  are  all  of  them 
factors  of  style.  And  it  would  appear  that  '  stylistic  '  should 
cover  the  theory  of  all  kinds  of  writing  —  poetic  and  prosaic. 
The  ancients,  indeed,  were  inclined  to  apply  the  term  rhetoric 
as  a  cross-division  to  many  common  qualities  of  poetry  and 
prose.  But  the  moderns  do  not  generally  accept  that  cross- 
division.  Elze,  Boeckh,  Maas,  and  others  arrange  the  matter 
thus:  Style  is  the  form  and  method  of  expression  in  language. 
'  Stylistic  '  is  the  general  theory  of  style,  and  this  general  theory 
divides  itself  naturally  into  the  theory  of  prose  style  (rhetoric, 
or,  if  that  have  an  oratorical  or  any  other  special  significance, 
prosaics)  and  the  theory  of  poetic  style  (poetics).  This  is  more 
reasonable  (Elze,  p.  347)  than  to  limit  '  stylistic,'  or  the  theory 
of  style,  as  Wackernagel  does,  to  the  material  which  lies  between 
the  two  realms,  on  the  border  land  of  prosaics  and  poetics, 
but  belongs  to  neither.  That  would  be  to  make  '  stylistic  ' 
coordinate  with  prosaics  and  poetics.  The  theory  of  style,  it 
may  be  held,  is  no  more  coordinate  with,  that  is,  a  category 
parallel  with,  prosaics  and  poetics,  than  it  is  subordinate  to 
either  or  both  of  them.  Still,  writers  on  rhetoric  and  poetics 
generally  propagate  one  or  the  other  of  these  opinions,  —  in  Eng- 
land and  America,  usually  the  second  ;  and  accordingly  we  find 
style  tre'ated  as  a  subdivision  of  rhetoric,  or  again  of  poetics ; 
both  of  which  may  be  regarded  as  subdivisions  of  'stylistic.' 

As  for  metric,  if  it  is  not  a  subdivision  of  poetics,  as  von 
Gottschall,  Gummere,  and  others  say,  then  it  must  be  either 
coordinate  or  distinct ;  entirely  distinct,  according  to  Elze,  who 


246  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§15. 

says  (p.  348)  "  it  does  not  belong  to  poetics  because  it  has 
nothing  whatever  to  do  with  style."  But  that  is  a  rash  state- 
ment ;  for,  even  if  metres  are  to  be  regarded  as  purely  con- 
ventional and  mechanical,  external  to  the  creative  spirit  and 
of  no  appreciable  effect,  they  still  fall  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
form,  which  is  itself  determined  by  the  objective  unity  of  the 
style  :  their  formal  rules  and  regulations  affect  the  utterance  of 
the  poet,  and  combine  to  govern  the  finality  of  his  expression 
(i.e.  his  style)  in  very  much  the  same  way  as  do  the  methods 
and  purposes  of  the  literary  species  in  which  he  chooses  to 
cast  his  thought.  So  much,  indeed,  would  seem  to  be  con- 
ceded by  Elze,  for  in  his  chapter  on  Metrik  (p.  361),  he  tells  us 
that  "  the  style  of  a  poem  does  not  remain  unaffected  by 
the  selection  of  verse-  and  strophe-forms." 

Metric,  therefore,  is  not  a  distinct  science ;  it  is  much  more 
likely  to  be  coordinate  with  poetics.  If  so,  the  term  Poetics  ought 
to  be  restricted  to  questions  affecting  the  subjective  unity  of 
style  in  poetry,  and  metric  and  technique  might  be  regarded  as 
dividing  between  them  questions  affecting  the  objective  unity 
of  the  style  ;  technique  dealing  with  the  question  of  literary 
species  or  forms,  and  metric  with  that  of  rhythmic  sequences 
arranged  in  recurring  measures. 

But  such  a  connotation  of  poetics  would  win  the  approval  of 
none.  Metric  does  not  lie  outside  of  poetics,  either  as  distinct 
or  coordinate ;  for  metres  as  well  as  literary  species  betray  in 
their  individual  and  in  their  generic  development  their  kinship 
with,  if  not  their  descent  from,  emotional,  physical,  and  cultural 
conditions  that  determine  the  subjective  quality  of  poetic  style. 
It  is,  in  other  words,  impossible  to  sunder  the  theory  of 
measures  —  of  sounds,  verses,  and  strophes,  from  the  theory 
of  motives  from  which  those  measures  spring.  The  motives  — 
psychical,  ethical,  and  physical — underlie  the  existence  of 
poetry  as  a  whole.  The  rhythms  of  metres,  though  chosen 
with  the  ease  and  indifference  of  conventionality,  have  their 


V.\  CLASSIFICATION  OF  LITERARY   THEORY.  247 

roots  as  firmly  imbedded  in  the  rhythm  of  nature  and  of  thought 
as  have  other  qualities  of  poetry,  whether  objective  or  subjec- 
tive. Elze's  "  allein  die  poetische  Stilistik  findet  die  Verse  und 
Strophen  vor  und  hat  nichts  mit  ihrer  Bildung  und  ihrem  Bau 
zu  thun  "  betrays  a  momentary  oblivion  of  historical  method. 
Has  poetic  style  always  found  its  appropriate  measures  ready- 
made  ?  Have  measures  and  poetic  style,  bred  in  diverse  climes 
and  times,  managed  somehow  to  run  into  each  other's  arms,  as 
if  by  happy  accident  ? 

The  definition  and  classification  of  disputed  terms  may  be 
stated  somewhat  as  follows  :  '  Stylistic  '  is  the  general  theory  of 
style;  the  discussion  of  it  should  precede  that  of  rhetoric  and 
poetics,  and  should  cover  the  various  elements  and  qualities 
of  style  common  to  and  belonging  to  both.  Rhetoric  (or 
prosaics)  is  that  division  of  the  theory  of  style  which  treats  of 
the  expression  of  thought  addressed  to  the  understanding,  as 
opposed  to  poetics,  which  treats  of  the  expression  of  thought 
addressed  to  the  imagination.  The  appeal  to  will  and  emotion 
may  variously  —  but  in  a  subordinate  degree  —  enter  into  both 
kinds  of  expression.  Metric,  or  versification,  should  be  regarded 
not  as  a  separate  discipline,  nor  as  coordinate  with  poetics  and 
rhetoric,  but  as  subordinate  to  poetics.  The  components  of 
poetics  are  as  follows  :  the  material  of  the  conception  (ethi- 
cal, intellectual,  emotional),  the  technique  of  construction,  the 
aesthetics  of  effect.  Technique  (or  technics)  regulates  the 
various  processes  of  construction  so  as  to  produce  a  form  that 
is  generic  (having  the  characteristic  of  a  poetical  kind 'or 
species)  and  rhythmical  (having  the  requisite  qualities  of  verbal 
measure  and  sound).  Metric  deals  with  rhythmic  form  in  the 
field  of  poetry. 

On  this  whole  matter  see  BOECKH,  ELZE,  and  WACKERNAGEL, 
as  above;  also  von  GOTTSCHALL,  SCHIPPER  (Metrik),  KORTING, 
GERBER  (Die  Sprache  als  Kunst),  GUMMERE  (Poetics),  and 
further  references  at  the  beginning  of  §  19  below. 


PART  II.  —  COMPARATIVE  LITERATURE. 

§   16.      STATEMENT   OF   PROBLEMS. 

THE  term  Comparative  Literature  is  here  employed,  as  in 
Professor  Posnett's  work  of  that  title,  to  designate  the  general 
theory  of  literary  evolution,  the  idea  that  literature  passes 
through  stages  of  inception,  culmination,  and  decline.  Unfor- 
tunately for  those  who  are  not  prepared  to  undertake  original 
research,  this  is  a  phase  of  evolution  which  has  received  but  slight 
attention.  Histories  of  literature  are,  of  course,  common  enough, 
and  the  tendency  at  the  present  time  is  to  connect  in  some  way 
the  biographical  and  critical  fragments  of  which  they  mainly 
consist  with  the  growth  of  religious  and  political  institutions  ; 
but  to  set  forth  explicitly  the  nature  and  value  of  this  connec- 
tion, to  show  that  the  birth,  rise,  culmination,  and  decline  of 
literary  movements  are  manifestations  of  a  general  law,  or  to 
point  out  "  any  tolerably  permanent  principle  of  social  evolu- 
tion round  which  the  facts  of  literary  growth  and  decay  may  be 
grouped  " —  this  has  been  the  task  of  but  a  very  few,  Posnett, 
Brunetiere,  Letourneau,  Symonds,  and  one  or  two  others,  none 
of  whom  can  be  said  to  have  been  unqualifiedly  successful. 

In  approaching  this  large  subject,  the  student  should  hold 
fast  to  the  clues  put  into  his  hands  in  preceding  chapters. 
Literature  has  been  assumed  to  be  an  art.  Principles  of  literary 
growth  will,  then,  be  special  applications  of  the  general  prin- 
ciples of  art-evolution.  The  first  question  to  be  asked  is, 
obviously,  (i)  What  form  does  the  general  law  of  art-evolution 
assume  when  it  manifests  itself  in  the  growth  of  literature  ?  If 
the  theory  of  art  adhered  to  makes  growth  dependent  on  condi- 
tions of  environment,  the  student  will  be  led  to  inquire,  (2)  How 
have  these  conditions  affected  the  development  of  literature  ? 


§  16.]  STA  TEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS.  249 

(3)  What  facts  of  physical,  social,  political,  or  religious  life 
will  serve  as  permanent  data  to  which  any  stage  of  literary 
growth  may  be  referred  ?  These  questions  may  be  further 
differentiated  :  (4)  Why  do  certain  types  of  literature  become 
prominent  at  certain  epochs  in  history?  (5)  Why  should 
certain  literary  forms  and  ideas  persist  from  generation  to 
generation,  or  recur  at  intervals  ?  (6)  Is  there  any  law  govern- 
ing the  times  of  such  recurrence  ?  (7)  What  signs  accompany 
the  rise,  the  maturity,  and  the  obsolescence  of  a  given  type? 

(8)  Does  one  literary  type,  as  epic,  ever  pass  into  another,  as 
drama,  by  a  definite  process  of   transformation  ?    and,  if    so, 

(9)  what    are  the  modifying   influences  which  effect   such   a 
metamorphosis?     (10)    Why  are  certain  literary  forms  missing 
from  certain  literatures?     (n)    What  modifications  of  environ- 
ment or  national  character  will  account  for  the  broad  differ- 
ences in  ancient  and  modern  literature  ?  (12)  in  Eastern  and 
Western  literatures?     (13)    What  has  been  the  influence  upon 
literary  development  of  the  discovery  of  printing  and  (14)  of 
the  rise  of  the  newspaper?     (15)  Which  has  come  first  in  the 
historical  development,  prose  or  poetry?    (16)  On  what  grounds 
may  the  precedence  of  either  be  accounted  for  ? 

Other  inquiries  which  it  is  profitable  to  pursue  concern  the 
influence  of  one  nation  upon  another,  as  of  France  upon  Eng- 
land in  the  seventeenth  century  ;  the  influence  of  one  author 
upon  another,  as  of  Dante  upon  Chaucer;  the  influence  of 
literary  schools  ;  and  the  reflex  influence,  not  to  be  overlooked, 
of  literature  on  social  and  individual  development. 

The  authorities  may  be  briefly  dismissed,  since  their  merits 
are  discussed  in  the  references  that  follow.  Posnett's  Com- 
parative Literature  is  the  only  work  that  can  make  pretense  to 
having  traced  a  single  principle  of  evolution  through  all,  or  at 
least  the  most  noteworthy,  literatures  of  the  world.  It  is  a  work 
which  is  likely,  at  a  first  perusal,  to  arouse,  in  many  readers, 
violent  and  unreasoning  prejudices.  Against  assuming  such 


250  LITER AR  Y  CRITICISM.  [§  17. 

an  uncritical  attitude  of  mind  the  student  should  be  warned  at 
the  outset,  and  recommended,  not  indeed  to  accept  the  author's 
conceptions  of  literature  as  the  last  word  on  the  subject,  but, 
having  gained  an  exact  comprehension  of  the  point  of  view,  to 
determine  for  himself  whether  or  not  violence  has  been  done 
to  the  literary  material.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the 
value  of  Posnett's  method,  a  reading  of  Greek  and  Latin  litera- 
ture to  verify  or  overthrow  the  conclusions  arrived  at  in  his 
chapter  on  "  Clan  Survivals  in  the  City  Commonwealth,"  or  a 
reading  of  English  authors  with  a  view  to  filling  out  the  hurried 
sketch  of  Nature  in  National  Literature  (Bk.  V,  chap.  XXXI), 
will  be  found  at  once  fascinating  and  profitable.  A  similar 
process  of  verification  may  be  urged  in  the  case  of  the  elaborate 
theory  of  Brunetiere.  The  speculations  of  Symonds,  though 
easily  understood,  are  too  broadly  and  vaguely  stated  to  be  used 
as  a  working  basis.  They  will,  however,  be  found  remarkably 
suggestive.  In  connection  with  these  authorities  the  student 
will  do  well  to  make  a  thorough  study  of  Taine,  Sainte-Beuve, 
M.-J.  Guyau,  and  E.  Hennequin,  as  writers  who  have  endeavored 
to  explain  literary  phenomena  on  purely  physical  grounds,  or  to 
relate  them  to  social  organization. 

§   17.      REFERENCES. 

BASCOM,  J.     Philosophy  of  English  Literature.     N.  Y.  :  1886. 

The  author  believes  that  an  alternation  of  creation  and  criti- 
cism can  be  detected  in  the  history  of  literature. 
BIEDERMANN,  WOLDEMAR  VON.     Zeitschrift  f.  vergl.  Litteratur- 
geschichte,  2:  415  Zur  vergleichenden  Geschichte  der  poeti- 
schen  Formen. 

A  good  illustration  of  the  comparative  method  applied  to 
primitive  forms  of  literature.  The  material  is  drawn  from  folk- 
lore collections,  early  literary  monuments,  accounts  of  savage 
life,  and  the  like. 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  251 

BETZ,  L.  P.     Revue  de  philologie  fran^aise  et  de  litterature,  X,  4, 
p.  247  Essai  de  bibliographic  des  questions  de  litterature 
comparee. 
A  classified  and  fairly  comprehensive  list  of  references. 

BETZ,  L.  P.     Zcitschrift  f.  franzosch.  Sprache  und  Litteratur, 
XVIII,  3,    1896    Kritische    Betrachtungen    iiber   Wesen, 
Aufgabe  und   Bedeutung  der  vergleichenden   Litteratur- 
geschichte. 
An  excellent  account  of  the  present  status  of  the  subject. 

BOUTERWEK,  FR.  Geschichte  der  Poesie  und  Beredsamkeit. 
2  vols.  Gdttingen:  1801-19. 

Vol.  I  Introduction  to  modern  poetry  and  eloquence;  from  the 
thirteenth  century  down. 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.  L'evolution  des  genres  dans  1'histoire  de 
la  litterature.  Tome  icr.  Introduction;  1'evolution  de  la 
critique  depuis  la  renaissance  jusqu'a  nos  jours.  Paris  : 
1890. 

The  object  of  this  work,  as  given  by  the  author,  is  to  dis- 
cover the  underlying  principles  of  literary  development  by 
applying  the  theory  of  evolution  to  the  study  of  literature.  The 
volume  opens  with  an  outline  of  the  author's  method,  and  an 
indication  of  the  results  at  which  he  hopes  to  arrive.  The 
question  of  the  evolution  of  literary  types  (genres)  resolves 
itself  into  five  subsidiary  questions  :  (i)  the  reality  and  inde- 
pendence of  types  ;  (2)  the  differentiation  of  types ;  (3)  the 
stability  of  types  ;  (4)  modifying  influences  ;  (5)  the  transforma- 
tion of  types.  The  differences  in  types  correspond  to  differ- 
ences m  the  means  and  ends  of  different  arts  and  to  diversities  in 
families  of  minds.  The  principle  of  differentiation  is  the  same 
that  operates  in  nature,  namely,  the  advance,  through '  divergence 
of  character,'  from  simplicity  to  complexity,  from  homogeneity  to 
heterogeneity.  Under  stability  of  type  are  discussed  questions 


252  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  .  [§17. 

regarding  the  signs  of  youth,  maturity,  or  decay  which  the  type 
exhibits  at  any  given  time  ;  it  seems  in  Brunetiere's  treatment 
of  it  to  be  most  closely  connected  with  the  relations  of  classi- 
cism and  romanticism.  In  his  discussion  of  modifying  influ- 
ences the  author  builds  upon  the  theory  of  Taine.  The  main 
influences  are  three  :  (i)  heredity,  or  the  race  ;  (2)  environ- 
ments, divided  into  geographical  or  climatic  conditions,  social 
conditions,  and  historical  conditions ;  and  (3)  individuality. 
The  transformation  of  types  takes  place  according  to  princi- 
ples analogous  in  their  operation  to  the  Darwinian  struggle  for 
existence,  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  natural  selection. 

The  system  is  ingenious,  but  the  question  may  be  raised 
whether  Brunetiere  does  not  overwork  the  biological  parallel. 

BRUNETIERE,  FERD.     L'evolution  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France 
au  dix-neuvieme  siecle.     2  vols.     Paris  :  1894. 

This  is  a  continuation  of  the  preceding  work  and  an  appli- 
cation of  its  theories,  the  object  being  to  trace  in  part  the 
evolution  of  an  important  genre.  In  vol.  I,  pp.  3-42,  the  author 
dwells  upon  his  method.  The  evolution  of  a  genre  is  different 
from  the  history  of  a  genre :  history  comes  down  the  course  of 
time  ;  evolution  goes  back  over  the  stages  which  have  led  to 
the  present  form. 

BUCKLE,  H.  T.     History  of  Civilization  in  England.     3  vols. 
Lond. :   1875. 

Buckle  maintains  the  thesis  that  literature  is  the  product,  and 
not  in  any  true  sense  the  cause,  of  civilization. 

CARLYLE,  THOS.    Lectures  on  the  History  of  Literature.    Lond. : 
1892. 

Presents  at  least  one  thesis  worthy  of  discussion  :  "  During  a 
healthy,  sound,  progressive  period  of  national  existence,  there 
is,  in  general,  no  literature  at  all." 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  253 

CARRIERE,  M.     Die  Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  der  Culturent- 
wickelting  und  die  Ideale  der  Menschheit.    5  vols.    Leipz. : 
«87i-73- 
The  opening  chapters  of  vol.  I  (pp.  7-121)  deal  with  the 

early  development  of  poetry.     Scattered  through  the  remaining 

volumes  are  chapters  in  which  is  traced  the  development  of 

both  poetry  and  prose.     (See  §  11.) 

CARRIERE,  M.  Poesie,  ihr  Wesen  und  ihre  Formen,  mit  Grund- 
ziigen  der  vergleichenden  Litteraturgeschichte.  2.  Aufl. 
Leipz. :  1884. 

An  application  of  the  Hegelian  aesthetic  to  the  history  of 
poetry.  Written  in  a  charming  style. 

CHECCHIA,  G.  Rivista  di  Filosofia  Scientifica,  vol.  VI,  Gennaio, 
1887  Del  methodo-evolutivo  nella  critica  letteraria. 

The  author  fits  ingeniously  the  ideas  and  terminology  of  the 
doctrine  of  evolution  to  the  phenomena  of  literature  as  he 
conceives  them.  The  struggle  for  existence,  natural  selection, 
survival  of  the  fittest,  hereditary  transmission,  and  atavism  are 
illustrated  in  literature,  he  thinks,  as  clearly  as  in  biology. 

COMTE,  AUG.     The  Positive  Philosophy.     Trans,  by  Harriet 
Martineau.     2  vols.     N.  Y. :  1854. 
See  §  11. 

DEMOGEOT,  J.  Histoire  des  litteratures  etrangeres  considerees 
dans  leurs  rapports  avec  le  developpement  de  la  litterature 
frangaise.  2  vols.  Paris  :  1880. 

A  study  of  the  influence  of  Italian,  Spanish,  English,  and 
German  literatures  on  the  literature  of  France. 

DE  VERE,  A.     Essays  Literary  and  Ethical.     Lond. :    1889. 
Contains  some  remarks  on  the  social  aspects  of  literature. 


254  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  17. 

DYER,  Louis.     Studies  of  the  Gods  in  Greece.     Lond.  :  1891. 

See  pp.  25,  28,  33,  38,  104,  in  for  interesting  observations 
on  the  relations  between  Greek  religion  and  Greek  poetry. 

ELLIS,  HAVELOCK.     The  New  Spirit.     Lond.  :  1890. 

The  book  may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  modern  attempts 
to  treat  literature  from  the  scientific  and  sociological  points  of 
view. 

ELSTER,    ERNST.      Die    Aufgaben    der     Litteraturgeschichte. 
Akademische  Antrittsrede.     Halle  :   1894. 

FALKENHEIM,  H.      Kuno   Fischer  und   die   litterarhistorische 
Methode.     Berlin:   1892. 

A  clear  and  readable  exposition  of  the  methods  of  criticism 
employed  by  the  eminent  German  philosopher  whose  name 
appears  in  the  title. 

'GROSSE,  E.     Die  Litteraturwissenschaft,  ihr  Ziel  und  ihr  Weg. 
(Dissert.)     1887. 

GROSSE,  E.     The  Beginnings  of  Art.     N.  Y. :   1897. 

These  are  the  writings  of  an  able  and  original  investigator  in 
the  field  of  literature  and  aesthetics.  They  may  be  consulted 
with  profit  by  the  advanced  student. 

GROTH,  E.     Die  Grenzboten,  49  (3)  :  540-551  Kulturgeschichte 
und  Litteraturgeschichte. 

.  Groth  is  a  follower  of  Taine,  but,  like  Brunetiere,  adds  to 
Taine's  formula  the  principle  of  individuality.  He  holds  that 
the  presence  of  the  individual  element  makes  it  impossible  for 
us  to  infer  from  any  given  work  the  general  character  of  the 
period  in  which  it  was  written.  The  great  masters  lie  outside 
their  age.  The  major  literary  products,  therefore,  as  a  source 
for  the  history  of  culture,  are  inferior  to  the  minor. 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  255 

A  second  article  by  Groth,  entitled  "  Die  Aufgabe  der  Littera- 
turgeschichte,"  appeared  in  Die  Grenzboten,  vol.  L,  p.  260. 

GAYLEY,  C.  M.      The  Dial,  Chicago,  August  i,  1894  A  Society 
of  Comparative  Literature. 

The  author  calls  for  the  organization  of  a  society  for  the 
comparative  investigation  of  literary  growths.  His  statement 
of  the  need  is  substantially  as  follows : 

Trustworthy  principles  of  literary  criticism  depend  upon  the  sub- 
stantiation of  aesthetic  theory  by  scientific  inquiry.  For  lack  of 
systematic  effort  the  comparative  investigation  of  literary  types, 
species,  movements,  and  themes  is  not  yet  adequately  prosecuted.  No 
individual  can,  unaided,  gather  from  various  literatures  the  materials 
necessary  for  an  induction  to  the  characteristic  of  even  one  literary 
type.  The  time  has  come  for  organization  of  effort.  In  the  proposed 
Society  of  Comparative  Literature  (or  of  Literary  Evolution)  each 
member  should  devote  himself  to  the  study  of  a  given  type  or 
movement  in  literature  with  which  he  is  specially,  and  at  first  hand, 
familiar.  Thus,  gradually,  wherever  the  type  or  movement  has  existed 
its  evolution  and  characteristics  may  be  observed  and  registered.  In 
time,  by  systematization  of  results,  an  induction  to  the  common  and, 
probably,  some  of  the  essential  characteristics  of  the  phenomena,  to 
some  of  the  natural  laws  governing  its  origin,  growth,  and  differentia- 
tion, may  be  made.  The  history  of  national  criticism  and  the 
aesthetics  of  sporadic  critical  theory  are,  of  course,  interesting  subjects 
of  study ;  but  to  adopt  canons  of  criticism  from  Boileau,  or  Vida,  or 
Puttenham,  or  Sidney,  or  Corneille,  or  even  Lessing  and  Aristotle,  and 
apply  them  to  types  or  varieties  of  type  with  which  these  critics  were 
unacquainted,  is  illogical,  and,  therefore,  unhistorical.  To  come  at 
the  laws  which  govern  the  drama,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  modify  by 
generally  accepted  aesthetic  principles  the  canons  of  any  one  school 
of  dramatic  critics,  even  if  we  revise  the  results  in  the  light  of  our 
inductions  from  the  drama  of  the  Graeco-Roman-Celto-Teutonic 
circle  with  which  we  are  familiar.  The  specific  principles  of  technical 
(or  typical)  criticism  must  be  based  upon  the  characteristics  of  the 
type  not  only  in  well-known  but  in  less-known  literatures,  among 


256  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§17. 

aboriginal  as  well  as  civilized  peoples,  and  in  all  stages  of  its  evolu- 
tion. The  comparative  formulation  of  results  would  assist  us  to 
corroborate  or  to  renovate  current  aesthetic  canons  of  dramatic  criti- 
cism. So,  also,  with  other  types,  —  lyric,  epic,  etc.,  —  and  with  the 
evolution  of  literary  movements  and  themes.  This  work  is  not  yet 
undertaken  by  any  English  or  American  organization,  or  by  any 
periodical  or  series  of  publications  in  the  English  language. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.     Old  English  Ballads.     Boston  :   1894. 

In  an  admirable  introduction  prefixed  to  this  collection  of 
ballads,  Professor  Gummere  discusses  at  considerable  length 
the  question  of  the  communal  origin  of  popular  literature.  The 
author's  reviews  of  books  and  articles  bearing  upon  the  ques- 
tion, and  the  bibliographical  references  in  the  footnotes  will  be 
of  great  assistance  to  the  student.  Gummere's  position  is,  in 
essentials,  that  of  ten  Brink. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.     The  Ballad  and  Communal  Poetry.     Child 

Memorial  Volume.     Boston  :   1897. 
For  a  detailed  synopsis  of  this  valuable  paper,  see  §  18,  //. 

HALLAM,  H.     Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe  in  the 
Fifteenth,  Sixteenth,  and  Seventeenth  Centuries.     4  vols. 
N.  Y.  :   1870. 
Perhaps  the   most  successful   of  all  attempts  at  a  general 

history  of  literature.     The  preface  contains  a  critical  review  of 

preceding  works  of  this  character. 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.     Aesthetik.     (See  §  8,  p.  101.) 

In  the  chapter  on  Poetry,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  220-281,  Hegel  applies 
his  principle  of  development  to  the  various  forms  of  literary 
production. 

HERDER,  J.  G.     Sammtliche  Werke.     Hsgb.  von  B.  Suphan. 
31  vols.     Berlin  :   1877-89. 

Bd.  VIII  Ueber  die  Wirkung  der  Dichtkunst  auf  die  Sitten  der 
Volker  in  alten  und  neuen  Zeiten. 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  257 

Herder's  writings  abound  in  suggestions  of  laws  of  literary 
growth,  as  might  be  expected  in  the  case  of  one  in  whom  the 
historical  sense  was  so  highly  developed,  who  was  indeed  the 
great  pioneer  of  the  doctrine  of  evolution  ;  but  the  suggestions 
are  not  given  systematic  form,  and  consequently  the  laws  are 
somewhat  vague.  Of  especial  interest  are  his  two  essays,  The 
Effect  of  Poetry  on  Popular  Morals  (vol.  VIII,  p.  334),  and 
The  Causes  of  Decay  and  Corruption  of  Taste  (vol.  V,  p.  593). 

HUMBOLDT,    ALEX   VON.      Cosmos.     Trans,    by    E.    C.    Otte. 

5  vols.     N.  Y. :   1850-62. 

The  chapter  on  the  Poetic  Delineation  of  Nature  (vol.  II, 
pp.  1-105)  contains  material  of  much  interest  to  the  student  of 
comparative  literature. 

JACOBOWSKI,  LUDW.     Die  Anfange  der  Poesie.     Grundlegung 
zu  einer  realistischen  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Poesie. 
Dresden:   1891. 
An  ambitious  attempt  to  lay  the  foundations  of  all  future 

theories  of  literary  evolution.     Amid  a  good  deal  of  chaff  there 

are  some  substantial  grains  of  common  sense. 

KAWCZYNSKI,  M.    Essai  comparatif  sur  1'origine  et  1'histoire  des 

rhythmes.     Paris :   1889. 

In  his  introductory  chapter  (Questions  preliminaires,  espe- 
cially pp.  10-30)  the  author  makes  attack  upon  the  theory  of  the 
autochthoneite  of  literature,  that  is,  the  theory  of  the  spontaneous 
origin  of  literature  in  each  nation.  He  holds  that  there  is  in 
literature  no  Volksgeist ;  each  literary  product  is  first  invented 
by  an  individual,  then  imitated  by  the  people.  The  chapter 
also  contains  valuable  observations  on  the  transformation 
through  which  literary  material  passes  when  borrowed  by  one 
nation  from  another. 

KOCH,   MAX.      Zeitschrift  f.   vergL   Litteraturgeschichte,    N.  F., 
Heft  I.     Einleitung. 


258  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§17. 

States  the  field  and  purpose  of  the  magazine  of  which  Koch 
is  editor. 

KORTING,  G.     Encyklopadie  und  Methodologieder  Romanischen 

Philologie.     2.  Theil,  4.  Buch,  Die  Litteraturcomplexe. 
A  comprehensive  and  philosophical  discussion  of  the  under- 
lying  principles    of   literary    development,    intended    for    the 
instruction  of  students  of  Romance  philology. 

LETOURNEAU,  C.     L'evolution  litteraire  dans  les  diverses  races 

humaines.     Paris:   1894. 

An  able  treatment  of  the  subject  by  a  patient  and  conserva- 
tive scientist.  A  summary  of  the  author's  results  is  given  by 
D.  F.  Hannigan  in  Westm.  Rev.  141:  400,  under  the  title  The 
Literary  Evolution  of  Man.  See  also  the  Origin  of  Literary 
Forms,  in  Pop.  Set.  Mo.,  September,  1893,  p.  675,  translated 
from  the  article  by  Letourneau  in  the  Revue  mensuclle  de  rtcole 
d  'anthropologie. 
MACAULAY,  T.  B.  Essays,  Critical  and  Miscellaneous.  N.  Y. : 

1861. 

See  the  essays  on  Dryden  and  Milton  for  Macaulay's  theory 
that  as  civilization  advances  the  literary  imagination  suffers  a 
decline. 

MOBERLY,  GEORGE.     Oxford   English   Prize    Essays.     5   vols. 
Oxford  :   1830-36. 

Vol.  IV,  p.  131  Is  a  rude  or  a  refined  age  more  favorable  to  the 
production  of  works  of  fiction? 

A  readable,  though  somewhat  conventional,  treatment  of  the 
theme. 
MORLEY,  H.     English  Writers.     Vol.1.     Lond. :   1887. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  volume  are  brief  observations  on  the 
methods  of  the  literary  historian.  The  first  hundred  pages 
treat  of  English  literature  as  affected  by  the  influence  of  other 
national  literatures. 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  259 

NODIER,  C.     Romans.     Paris  :   1850. 

Pp.  7-19  Des  types  en  litterature. 

A  pleasing  though  somewhat  fanciful  essay  on  the  origin  of 
individual  and  national  literary  types. 

OLIPHANT,  MRS.  M.  O.  W.  Literary  History  of  England  in 
the  End  of  the  Eighteenth  and  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth 
Century.  3  vols.  Lond. :  1882. 

Mrs.  Oliphant  maintains  (vol.  I,  pp.  7-15)  that  the  develop- 
ment of  literature  is  not  subject  to  the  operation  of  discoverable 
laws.  The  evolution  of  mind  "has  been  regulated  by  some 
spasmodic  force  which  no  one  has  tried  to  define  [a  surprising 
statement !],  and  which  acts  by  great  unforeseen  impulses  of 
irregular  recurrence,  of  which  no  one  has  succeeded  in  calculat- 
ing the  times  or  seasons."  (Cf.  the  preface  to  Perry's  English 
Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century.) 

PAUL,  H.  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie.  Strass- 
burg :  1889.  I.  Lief.,  III.  Abschn.,  pp.  152-237  Metho- 
denlehre. 

See  §  2. 
PELLISSIER,   GEORGES.     Essais   de    litterature   contemporaine. 

Paris  :   1893. 

Contains  an  interesting  discussion  of  Brunetiere's  doctrine  of 
the  evolution  of  literary  types. 

PERRY,  T.  S.     English  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 

N.  Y.  :   1883. 

In  the  preface  to  this  work  the  author  considers  the  views 
advanced  by  Mrs.  Oliphant  in  the  preface  to  her  Literary 
History- of  England.  He  dissents  from  her  opinion  that  "  every 
singer  is  a  new  miracle,  ...  no  growth  developed  out  of  pre- 
ceding poets,  but  something  sprung  from  an  impulse  which  is 
not  reducible  to  law,"  maintaining  that  law  prevails  in  the 
progress  of  literature  quite  as  much  as  in  the  growth  of  society. 


260  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  17. 

The  resemblance  of  the  author's  conception  of  literature  to  that 
of  Posnett  is  pointed  out  by  W.  D.  Howells  in  Harper,  73  :  318. 

PNIOWER,  O.     Freie  Biihne  f.  modernes  Leben,  i :  289  Die  neue 

Litteraturgeschichte. 

The  author  draws  a  distinction  between  the  old  method  of 
literary  investigation  and  the  new  method.  The  old  method 
made  search  for  the  spiritual  content,  the  ethical  purpose,  the 
idea  of  the  work.  The  new  method,  which  owes  its  existence 
to  recent  activity  in  science  and  philology,  proceeds  to  an 
analysis.  Working  in  the  spirit  of  the  analytical  chemist, 
it  examines  the  literary  compound  to  discover  its  constituent 
elements.  As  representatives  of  the  new  method,  Pniower 
mentions  Erich  Schmidt,  Scherer,  and  Goedecke. 

POSNETT,  H.  M.     Comparative  Literature.     N.  Y.  :   1886. 

In  spite  of  many  obvious  defects  and  limitations,  this  work 
is  a  remarkable  production.  It  is  the  first  serious  attempt,  in 
English,  to  apply  to  the  history  of  literature  the  results  of  the 
researches  of  Herbert  Spencer,  Sir  Henry  Maine,  and  others 
who  have  written  on  the  development  of  social  organizations. 
Beginning  with  the  lowest  orders  of  expression,  Posnett  traces 
the  evolution  of  literature  to  its  present  complex  forms,  the 
stages  being :  clan  literature,  literature  of  the  city  common- 
wealth, world  literature,  national  literature.  The  advance  is 
marked  by  the  widening  and  deepening  of  the  elements  of 
personality. 

Attempting  to  treat  so  large  a  subject  within  somewhat 
narrow  limits,  the  work  as  a  whole  makes  upon  the  reader  an 
impression  of  haste  and  incompleteness.  Many  facts  essential 
to  the  argument  are  perforce  omitted.  Sweeping  inductions  are 
drawn  not  infrequently  from  examples  that  are  conspicuous  by 
their  fewness.  The  value  of  the  work  is  further  lessened  by  its 
blind,  uncritical  adherence  to  the  tenets  of  the  Spencerian 
philosophy  and  its  consequent  inclination  to  polemics.  More- 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  261 

over,  the  author's  sympathies  are  so  engrossed  with  the  social 
conditions  from  which  he  conceives  literature  to  have  sprung 
that  he  turns  somewhat  grudgingly  to  literature  itself.  Notwith- 
standing these  drawbacks,  the  book  may  be  heartily  recom- 
mended to  the  student  of  literature.  If  it  does  nothing  more, 
it  will  at  least  upset  some  of  his  literary  superstitions,  and  lead 
him  to  question  seriously  the  validity  of  conventional  ideas 
about  literary  periods  and  classifications. 

The  book  is  sympathetically  reviewed  by  W.  D.  Howells  in 
Harper,  73  :  318,  and  more  rigorously  handled  in  Nation, 
43  :  143- 

PUTNAM,  GEO.  H.     Authors  and  their  Public  in  Ancient  Times. 
N.  Y.  :   1894. 

Traces  the  history  of  literature  from  the  earliest  recorded 
times  to  the  invention  of  printing,  with  a  view  to  determining 
the  development  of  the  idea  of  literary  property.  A  useful 
bibliography  is  given  at  the  beginning  of  the  book. 

RENAN,   Ernest.     Essais    de   morale   et   de   critique.      2e  dd. 
Paris  :    1860. 

Pp.  375—456  La  poesie  des  races  celtiques. 

RICARDOU,  A.  La  critique  litteraire  :  etude  philosophique.   Avec 

une  preface  de  M.  F.  Brunetiere.     Paris  :   1896. 
See  pp.  32-94  for  an  outline  of  the  principles  of  literary  evo- 
lution.    Ricardou  follows  Taine,  Brunetiere,  and  Hennequin. 
REVUE  CELTIQUE.     18  vols.     Paris:   1897.     Ed.  by  D'Arbois 

de  Jubainville. 

This  and  Die  Keltische  Zeitschrift,  ed.  by  Kuno  Meyer  and 
Chr.  Sterne  (Halle  and  London),  should  open  the  field  of  Irish 
literary  origins  to  the  student. 

SALT,  H.  S.     New  Review,  4  :  19  The  Socialist  Ideal:  Litera- 
ture. 

See  §  U. 


262  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  17. 

SCHERER,  WM.     Poetik.     Berlin :   1888. 

Scherer  finds  a  place  here  because  of  his  part  in  the  con- 
troversy with  Jacob  Grimm  over  the  communal  origin  of  poetry. 
Scherer  holds  that  early  poetry  is  individual  in  origin.  (Cf.  his 
Jacob  Grimm,  p.  146.  2.  Aurl.  Berlin  :  1885.) 

SCHERR,  JOH.     Allgemeine  Geschichte  der  Literatur.     2  vols. 
Stuttgart:   1881-82. 

See  vol.  I,  pp.  1-14,  for  the  plan  on  which  this  universal 
history  is  composed. 

SCHLEGEL,  F.   VON.     Lectures   on   the   History  of  Literature. 
Bohn  Libr.     Lond. :   1876. 

Important  as  illustrating  a  conception  of  literary  development 
that  in  its  time  exercised  great  influence. 

SCHMIDT,  ERICH.     Charakteristiken.     Berlin  :   1886. 

Pp.  480-498  Wege  und  Ziele  der  deutschen  Litteraturgeschichte. 

In  this  spirited  and  scholarly  address  the  author  passes  in 
review  the  German  historians  of  literature,  and  expounds  at  some 
length  his  views  of  the  object  and  methods  of  literary  research. 
The  opinions  expressed  have  had  considerable  influence  among 
German  scholars. 

SPENCER,  H.     First  Principles.     Lond.  :   1862. 
See  pp.  162-167  on  thg  evolution  of  literature. 

As  an  example  which  "  vividly  illustrates  the  multiplicity  and 
heterogeneity  of  the  products  that  in  course  of  time  may  arise 
by  successive  differentiations  from  a  common  stock,"  Spencer 
sketches  the  evolution  of  literature,  from  the  exclamations  of 
savages  and  the  picture-writing  of  the  Egyptians  and  Mexicans, 
to  "  the  placards  inside  the  omnibus  "  and  "  the  copy  of  the 
Times  lying  upon  the  table." 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  263 

STAEL,  MME.  DE.     De  la  litterature  considered  dans  ses  rapports 
avec  les  institutions  sociales.     Paris:   1845. 
See  §  14. 

STAFFER,  PAUL.     Des  reputations  litteraires  :  essais  de  morale 
et  d'histoire.     ie  Ser.     Paris  :   1893. 

P.  361  L'avenir  de  la  litterature. 

An  interesting  discussion  of  the  laws  of  literary  evolution, 
with  critical  remarks  on  the  system  of  Brunetiere.  Stapfer 
believes  in  what  may  be  called  persistence  of  literary  energy. 
He  holds  that  it  is  inaccurate  to  speak  of  decadence  in  literature. 
What  seems  decline  is  merely  transformation  into  some  other 
form. 

STEINTHAL,  H.     Zeitschrift  f.  Volkerpsychologie,  5  :  i  Das  Epos. 
Steinthal  upholds  the  theory  of  a  communal  origin  of  litera- 
ture as  the  outcome  of  common  feeling  and  sentiment  in  the 
clan. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Essays  Speculative  and  Suggestive.     2  vols. 

Lond. :   1890. 

In  his  essay  on  the  Application  of  Evolutionary  Principles  to 
Art  and  Literature,  Symonds  endeavors  to  formulate  a  law  that 
will  account  for  literary  growth,  culmination,  and  decay.  The 
results,  as  might  be  expected  from  a  writer  whose  '  science  ' 
exists  principally  in  the  form  of  feeling  and  imagination,  are 
interesting,  but  vague.  See  comments  in  the  London  Acad., 
August  30,  1890,  p.  166  ;  London  Athenaeum,  August  30,  1890, 
p.  279  ;  Nation,  51  :  173. 

TAINE,-  H.     History  of  English  Literature.     Trans,  by  H.  Van 

Laun.     Lond. :   1883. 

Taine  is  the  most  prominent,  if  not  the  most  important,  figure 
in  the  history  of  literary  methodology.  His  celebrated  formula  of 
the  race,  the  environment,  and  the  moment,  the  three  constituting 


264  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  17. 

the  conditions  of  literary  development,  is  presented  in  vol.  I, 
pp.  1-36,  of  this  history.  The  remark  has  often  been  made  that 
the  author  in  the  body  of  the  work  neglects  the  principles 
which  he  enunciates  in  the  preface.  For  a  careful,  though 
unfriendly,  criticism,  see  Robert  Flint,  Historical  Philosophy  in 
France  (N.  Y.  :  1894),  pp.  631-636. 

TEN  BRINK,  B.     Ueber  die  Aufgabe  der  Litteraturgeschichte. 

Strassburg  :  1891. 

Of  special  interest  as  setting  forth  theoretically  the  methods 
of  literary  history  successfully  practiced  by  the  author  in  his 
works  on  English  literature. 

TEXTE,  Jos.     Revue  de  philologie  fran$aise  et  de  litterature,  X,  4, 

p.  241  L'histoire  comparee  des  litteratures. 
A  sketchy  but  suggestive  introduction  to  the  bibliography  of 
L.  P.  Betz,  in  the  same  number. 

THOMPSON,  ROBT.     Treatise  on  the  Progress  of  Literature  and 

its  Effects  on  Society.     Edinb.  :   1834. 

Literature  is  characterized  as  the  "mirror  of  society."  Its 
effects  are  removal  of  prejudice,  increased  security  of  social 
rights,  education  of  the  manufacturing  classes,  and  the  dis- 
couragement of  war. 

UHLAND,  LUDW.  Schriften  zur  Geschichte  der  Dichtung  und 
Sage.  Stuttgart:  1866. 

WATTS,  THEODORE.     Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed.     '  Poetry.' 

In  a  discussion  of  the  epic  and  the  lyric,  pp.  265-272,  Watts 
touches  upon  the  relation  between  the  growth  of  philosophical 
conceptions  and  the  growth  of  literature. 

WETZ,  W.  Kritischer  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Fortschritte  der 
romanischen  Philologie,  I,  Heft  II,  1890,  1894  Litteratur- 
wissenschaft. 


§  17.]  REFERENCES.  265 

WETZ,  W.  Ueber  Litteraturgeschichte.  Eine  Kritik  von  ten 
Brink's  Rede  '  Ueber  die  Aufgabe  der  Litteraturgeschichte.' 
Worms:  1891. 

See  especially  pp.  31-65. 

WETZ,  W.  Shakespeare  vom  Standpunkte  d.  vergleichenden 
Litteraturgeschichte.  Bd.  I  Die  Menschen  in  Shakes- 
peares  Dramen.  Worms:  1890. 

Pp.  1-43  Einleitung  :    Ueber  Begriff  und  Wesen  der  vergleichen- 
den Litteraturgeschichte. 

The  author  proclaims  himself  a  follower  of  Taine,  whose 
theories  he  endeavors  to  develop.  He  believes  that  a  science 
of  literature  is  possible,  which  shall  attain  to  the  rank  of  an 
exact  science  and  ultimately  rival  the  other  exact  sciences  in 
completeness  of  method  and  precision  of  results. 

WOLFF,  EUGEN.  Das  Wesen  wissenschaftlicher  Litteratur- 
betrachtung.  Kiel  und  Leipz.  :  1890. 

WOLFF,  EUGEN.  Prolegomena  d.  litt.-evolutionistischen  Pqetik. 
Kiel  :  1890. 

WOLFF,  EUGEN.  Hamb.  Correspondent,  1891,  Nos.  913,  916 
Litteraturgeschichte  ruckwarts. 

The  author  belongs  to  a  school  of  German  writers  who  are 
making  strenuous  (and  at  times  frantic)  efforts  to  base  the 
history  of  literature  upon  natural  laws,  especially  upon  the  law 
of  evolution.  According  to  Wolff,  research  should  be  carried 
on  along  three  principal  lines  :  historical,  psychological,  and 
aesthetic.  The  method  proposed  seems  to  be  a  mixture  of  the 
theories  of  Taine,  Sainte-Beuve,  and  Wm.  Scherer. 


266  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  18, /-//. 


§   18.     GENERAL  NOTE. 

/.  Collateral  Aids.  —  Investigations  in  the  philosophy  of 
history  (see  Flint's  Philosophy  of  History  in  France  and 
Germany  for  references),  in  the  doctrine  of  biological  evolution 
(consult  Darwin,  Spencer,  Haeckel,  Wallace,  Romanes),  and 
in  the  principles  of  sociology  (see  De  Greef's  Introduction  a  la 
sociologie  and  Giddings's  Principles  of  Sociology),  are  urged 
upon  those  who  would  make  original  contributions  to  this 
subject.  On  the  comparative  method  in  general,  see  the 
exhaustive  treatise  of  Ernst  Bernheim,  Lehrbuch  der  histori- 
schen  Methode,  and  Freeman's  essay  on  the  Unity  of  History, 
in  Comparative  Politics  (N.  Y.  :  1874). 

For  the  principles  of  social  evolution  necessary  to  the 
comparative  study  of  literary  origins  and  development,  the 
reader  may  examine  Spencer's  Data  of  Ethics  and  Principles 
of  Sociology,  Leveleye's  Primitive  Property,  and  Sir  Henry 
Maine's  Village  Communities,  Early  History  of  Institutions, 
and  Ancient  Law.  The  various  theories  of  evolution  referred  to 
by  Brunetiere  are  explained  by  Huxley  in  the  article  '  Biology  ' 
in  the  Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed. 

For  assistance  from  the  realm  of  anthropology,  see  Tylor's 
Primitive  Culture,  Anthropology,  etc.,  and  the  references  con- 
tained therein.  On  language,  rhythm,  religious  origins,  etc.,  see 
references  in  the  next  paragraph. 

//.  The  Origins  of  Poetry.  —  The  inquiry  into  the  origin 
of  the  lyric  and  the  epic  —  the  methods  and  materials  of  the 
study  —  naturally  falls  under  the  special  consideration  of  those 
subjects.  Since,  however,  some  introduction  to  the  subject  must 
be  given  here,  it  has  seemed  wise,  in  addition  to  the  analysis 
and  references  of  the  preceding  sections,  to  subjoin  the  follow- 
ing rbsumt  of  Prof.  F.  B.  Gummere's  article  on  Ballad  and 


//.]  THE   ORIGINS  OF  POETRY.  267 

Communal  Poetry  (Child  Memorial.  Boston  :  1897),  which  is 
altogether  the  most  lucid  and  practical  presentation  of  the 
problem  as  it  now  stands.  There  is  at  present,  according  to 
Professor  Gummere,  a  reaction  against  the  doctrine  of  Jacob 
and  Wilhelm  Grimm  to  the  effect  that  a  song  of  the  people  is 
made  by  the  people  as  a  whole.  Grundtvig  and  ten  Brink 
still  held  with  Grimm,  but  critics  are  now  of  A.  W.  Schlegel's 
mind :  what  we  attribute  to  ages  and  peoples  nearly  always 
resolves  itself,  on  closer  inspection,  into  the  characteristics  and 
deeds  of  individuals  ;  the  method  of  distribution  of  popular 
tales  is  by  borrowing,  the  cause  of  their  production  is  the  love  of 
amusement.  Joseph  Jacobs  says  that  "  artistry  is  individual," 
that  Scotch  ballads  merely  "lack  the  initials  at  the  end,"  that 
verse  and  prose  began  together  ;  the  cante-fable  "  is  probably 
the  protoplasm  out  of  which  both  ballad  and  folk-tale  have 
been  differentiated,"  and  Newell  insists  that  "folk-tales  are  a 
degenerate  form  amid  a  low  civilization  of  something  which 
was  composed  amid  a  high  civilization."  J.  F.  Campbell 
concedes  that  "  the  older  the  narrator  is,  the  less  educated,  and 
the  farther  removed  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  the  more  his 
stories  "  have  of  the  bardic  composition  in  them  ;  he  concedes 
"  the  stamp  of  originality  and  the  traces  of  many  minds,  and 
the  precedence  of  singing,"  but  is  evidently  on  the  artist's 
side.  Gummere,  on  the  other  hand,  holds  to  the  communal 
authorship,  but  not  as  understood  by  the  Grimms.  He  does 
not  believe  in  the  "  song  that  sings  itself,"  "  Steinthal's  dich- 
tender  Volksgeist"  ;  but,  rather,  in  "  a  process  such  as  Lachmann 
implies  when  he  speaks  of  gemeinsames  dichten"  He  adheres 
to  "  the  belief  in  certain  spontaneous  movements  of  the  human 
mind,  particularly  as  regards  rhythmical  expression.  But  this 
rhythmical  spontaneity  furnishes  the  chief  argument  for  the 
assumption  of  early  communal  song  ;  and  it  seems  even  to 
make  difficulties  for  those  who  look  upon  poetry  from  the 
artistic  point  of  view  alone  "  (pp.  47-48).  He  states  the  ques- 


268  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  18. 

tions  at  issue  as  follows  :  "  Does  a  single  artist  always  make 
poetry,  of  whatever  sort,  or  may  one  allow  a  concert  of  individuals 
in  the  act  of  composition?  Is  the  folk-song  brought  to  the 
folk,  or  is  it  made  by  the  folk  ?  Is  the  chorus,  the  communal 
song,  essentially  one  with  the  composed  poem  as  we  now  know 
it,  —  an  individual,  deliberate,  and  artistic  work  ?  Is  there  ... 
not  a  dualism  in  generative  poetics  ...  of  chorus  and  solo,  of 
throng  and  poet,  of  community  and  artist  ?  "  That  the  com- 
munal theory  is  opposed  to  the  drift  of  modern  thought  is 
evident  from  the  writings  of  modern  scholars  in  widely  different 
fields,  —  of  Paul  (Principles  of  the  Hist,  of  Language),  who 
says  that  "it  never  happens  that  several  individuals  create 
anything  by  working  together  with  united  forces  and  divided 
functions  "  ;  of  W.  D.  Whitney  ;  of  Gerber  (Die  Sprache  als 
Kunst),  "  Sprache  nimmt  ihren  Ausgangspunkt  von  den  Indi- 
viduen,"  and  so  poetry  ;  of  M.  Tarde,  "Language  is  originally 
an  invention  of  the  single  mind,  made  lasting  by  imitation  on  the 
part  of  the  throng.  ...  In  the  beginning  some  anthropoid 
(some  savage  of  genius  in  some  famille  unique)  imagined 
(invented)  the  rudiments  of  a  language,"  and  this  process  is 
true  also  of  trades  and  arts,  poetry  and  religion.  "  Poetry 
begins  always  with  a  book,  an  epopee  .  .  .  the  Iliad,  the  Bible, 
Dante,  some  high  initial  source."  So  also  M.  Kawczynski  on 
the  Origin  and  History  of  Rhythms  :  "  Verse  is  an  art  always 
imitated,  borrowed."  Ballads  are  not  even  a  primary  imitation ; 
they  are  a  "  secondary  invention  "  on  the  part  of  "  sacristans 
of  the  parish,"  etc.  Whence  the  primary  imitation  is  derived, 
says  Professor  Gummere,  M.  Kawczynski  fails  to  inform  us, 
save  that  we  are  never  to  look  to  the  people.  Kawczynski's  pet 
aversion  is  the  "false  principle  of  spontaneity."  Everything  is 
borrowed;  the  Nibelungen  Lay,  alliteration,  Germanic  verse,  all 
may  be  traced  by  levels  more  or  less  numerous  to  Latin  and 
Greek  sources.  Neither  rhythm  nor  dancing  springs  from  instinct 
or  natural  impulse ;  they  were  both  discoveries,  inventions. 


//.]  THE   ORIGINS   OF  POETRY.  269 

Turning  to  a  criticism  of  all  this,  Professor  Gummere  cites 
Renan  (De  1'Origine  du  Langage),  himself  a  supporter  of  the 
theory  of  individual  authorship,  in  favor  of  the  principle  of 
spontaneity  ("  Renan  saw  spontaneity  writ  large  over  the  entire 
life  of  primitive  man  "),  and  proceeds  to  show  that,  on  any 
other  basis,  a  logical  theory  of  poetry  is  impossible.  Aristotle's 
antithesis  between  the  artistic  and  communal  in  poetry  is  a 
recognition  of  the  "  dancing,  singing,  improvising  multitude." 
Gerber,  too,  excludes  improvisation  from  poetry,  "  for  he  defines 
poetry  as  '  deliberation,'  added  to  '  enthusiasm.' "  But  his 
theory  "breaks  down  utterly,  because  he  does  not  recognize 
this  dualism  of  the  artist  and  the  throng.  Spontaneous  com- 
position in  a  dancing  multitude  —  all  singing,  all  dancing,  and 
all  able  on  occasion  to  improvise  —  is  a  fact  of  primitive  poetry 
about  which  we  may  be  as  certain  as  such  questions  allow  us  to 
be  certain.  Behind  individuals  stands  the  human  horde.  .  .  . 
Aristotle  saw  such  a  horde  or  throng.  An  insistent  echo  of 
this  throng  [the  refrain  encroaching  steadily  upon  the  artist  as 
we  retrace  the  history  of  the  ballad]  greets  us  from  the  ballads." 
How,  then,  was  verse  "  made  in,  or  even  by,  this  mass  of 
'  enthusiastic '  men  ?"  This  question  leads  to  the  considera- 
tion of  the  folk-soul  as  opposed  to  the  single  soul,  and  of  the 
rhythmic  and  emotional  expression  of  a  throng.  Gummere 
cites  Wundt  (Ueber  Ziele  u.  Wege  d.  Volkerpsychologie)  in 
support  of  the  Gesammtgeist,  — "  die  Volksseele  "  is  "  an  sich  ein 
ebenso  berechtigter,  ja  nothwendiger  Gegenstand  psychologi- 
scher  Untersuchung  wie  die  individuelle  Seele," — and,  showing 
that  the  earliest  poetry  had  the  collective  and  communal  con- 
ditions and  attributes  which  distinguished  primitive  institu- 
tions, adds  communal  poetry  to  Wundt's  three  products  of  the 
communal  mind,  —  speech,  myth,  and  custom.  Communal 
poetry  was  distinguished  "  by  a  maximum  of  enthusiasm  with 
a  minimum  of  deliberation.  .  .  .  Universality  of  the  poetic 
gift  among  inferior  races,  spontaneity  or  improvisation  under 


270  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  18. 

communal  conditions,  the  history  of  refrain  and  chorus,  the 
early  relation  of  narrative  songs  to  the  dance  ..."  are  facts 
so  well  authenticated  that  "it  is  no  absurdity  to  insist  upon 
the  origin  of  poetry  under  communal  and  not  under  artistic 
conditions."  Gummere  regards  the  real  difficulty  as  lying  not 
here,  "  but  with  the  assertion  of  simultaneous  composition.  Yet 
this  difficulty  is  more  apparent  than  real "  when  one  considers 
not  an  artistic  ballad,  but  a  primitive  choral  dance  ;  and  of  the 
choral  dance  there  is  here  the  question.  For  "  the  sentence 
was  the  unit  of  speech,  just  as  the  verse  was  and  is  the  unit 
of  poetry,"  and  "  repetition  was  the  chief  element  in  primi- 
tive verse.  To  repeat  a  sentence  was  poetry.  .  .  .  Add  to 
these  the  lack  of  individuality,  the  homogeneous  mental  state, 
.  .  .  the  leap  or  step  of  the  dance,  etc.,  .  .  ."  and  "  the  com- 
munal making  of  verse  is  no  greater  mystery  than  many  another 
undoubted  feat  of  primitive  man.  .  .  .  Add  the  great  fact  of 
reproduction  (ten  Brink),  as  vital  in  ancient  poetry  as  original 
production  is  vital  in  our  own,  and  the  case  is  yet  stronger." 
According  to  Donovan  (Festal  Origin  of  Human  Speech),  "  the 
earliest  expressions  of  communal  interest  were  in  the  play- 
excitement  found  in  all  grades  of  development,  from  that  of  the 
lowest  Australian  or  American  aborigines,  up  to  the  choral 
dance  out  of  which  the  first  glorifying  songs  of  the  race  and  its 
heroes  are  found  growing."  Hence,  rhythmic  motions,  excited 
cries,  out  of  which  come  music  and  speech.  "  Here,  then,  was 
the  birth  of  poetry."  With  reflection  comes  individuality,  the 
separation  of  the  singer  from  the  crowd,  the  addition  of  thought 
to  emotion.  "  The  sense  of  individuality  .  .  .  and  the  prevail- 
ing intellectual  bias  in  emotion  are  the  chief  marks  of  poetry  of 
to-day." 

The  authors  of  this  volume  look  with  eager  anticipation  for 
the  result  of  Professor  Gummere's  present  investigations  into 
the  origins  of  poetry,  and  would  unhesitatingly  commend  to  the 
attention  of  students  whatever  he  may  publish  upon  the  subject. 


//.]  THE    ORIGINS   OF  POETRY.  271 

The  following  references  on  ballad  and  communal  poetry  are 
from  his  article  in  the  Child  Memorial  (pp.  41—56)  :  A.  W. 
Schlegel,  Heidelb.  Jahrbiicher,  1815  (repr.  in  Schlegel's  Werke, 
vol.  XII,  p.  383  et  seq. ;  against  the  communal  origin,  answered 
by  W.  Grimm,  Altdeutsche  Blatter,  3:370  et  seq. ;  see  works  of 
Jacob  and  Wilhelm  Grimm  in  general) ;  Joseph  Jacobs,  Folk-lore, 
4  :  2,  233  et  seq.,  June,  1893  (no  such  thing  as  the  folk  behind 
so-called  folk  song)  ;  Proceedings  of  International  Folk  Lore 
Congress,  under  Newell  and  Jacobs,  1891  ;  Joseph  Jacobs, 
English  Fairy  Tales  ;  J.  F.  Campbell,  Popular  Tales  of  the 
West  Highlands  (new  ed.  The  ballad  is  "a  bit  of  popular 
history,  or  a  popular  tale  or  romance,  turned  into  verse  which 
will  fit  some  popular  air  ") ;  F.  B.  Gummere,  Introd.  to  Old 
English  Ballads  (Boston:  1894);  H.  Steinthal,  Zeitschrift  f. 
Volkerpsychologie,  \  i  :  30  Zur  Volksdichtung  (dichtender  Volks- 
geisf)  ;  Friedlander,  Homerische  Kritik  von  Wolf  in  Grote 
(Berlin  :  1853.  P.  viii  Lachmann's  letter  to  Lehrs  ;  speaks  of 
gemeinsames  dichten)  ;  Eugen  Wolff,  Vorstudien  zur  Poetik  (in 
Zeitschrift  f.  vgL  Lit.  6  :  423  et  seq..  1893)  ;  Hermann  Paul, 
The  Principles  of  the  Hist,  of  Language,  Strong's  trans.  (2d  ed. 
pp.  xxiv,  xxvi,  xliii,  and  the  chapter  on  Original  Creation)  ; 
Paul,  Grundr.  d.  germ.  Philol.  i  :  73,  231  ("against  the  notion 
of  gregarious  composition  ")  ;  G.  Gerber,  Die  Sprache  als  Kunst, 
2.  Aufl.  i  :  246  ff.  (i  :  30  ;  i  :  124  51:131;  i  :  309  —  passages 
used  by  Gummere)  ;  G.  Tarde,  Les  lois  de  1'imitation  (Paris  : 
1890)  ;  Renan,  De  1'origine  du  langage ;  Kawczynski,  Essai 
comparatif  sur  1'origine  et  1'histoire  des  rhythmes  (Paris  : 
1889)  ;  see  rev.  in  Am.  Journ.  Philol.,  vol.  XLI  ;  Herbert 
Spencer,  Pop.  Set.  Mo.  47  :  433  Orator  and  Poet,  Actor  and 
Dramatist ;  Ernst  Meumann,  in  Wundt's  Psychologische  Studien, 
10:  249  et  seq.,  1894  (an  attempt  to  reorganize  the  science  of 
rhythms  on  the  basis  of  psycho-physics)  ;  Bastian,  Masken  und 
Maskereien,  in  Zeitschrift  f.  Volkerpsychologie,  14  :  347  ;  Aristotle, 
Poetics,  on  Imitation  and  Tragedy  ;  Bielschowsky,  Geschichte 


272  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§18. 

der  deutschen  Dorfpoesie  im  13100  Jhdt. ;  Schopenhauer,  Welt 
als  Wille  u.  Vorstellung,  i  :  §  51  On  Poetry ;  G.  Le  Bon, 
L'evolution  des  peuples  (Paris  :  1894.  Defense  of  "the  historic 
race  "),  and  his  Psychologic  des  Foules  ;  Wundt,/V«7<w.  Studien, 
4  :  i  (1888)  Ueber  Ziele  u.  Wege  d.  Volkerpsychologie  (in  favor 
of  the  Gesammtgeist)  ;  Reclus,  Primitive  Folk  ("  at  the  outset, 
collectivism  was  at  its  maximum,  and  individualism  at  its 
minimum  ")  ;  R.  M.  Meyer,  Zeitschrift f.  vgl.  Lit.  i  :  34  et  scq. 
on  the  Refrain  ;  Donovan,  in  Mind,  16  :  498-506  The  Festal 
Origin  of  Human  Speech ;  ten  Brink's  Beowulf  (Quellen  und 
Forschungen,  62),  p.  105  on  the  tendency  to  reproduction  in 
ancient  poetry  ("On  the  decrease  of  individual  divergences  as  one 
retraces  history  ")  ;  Dr.  Krejci,  Das  characteristische  Merkmal 
der  Volkspoesie,  Zeitschrift  f.  Volkerpsychologie,  19  :  115  et  seq. 
(1889);  Krohn,  La  Chanson  Populaire  en  Finlande  (in  Pro- 
ceedings International  Folk  Lore  Congress,  1891,  p.  143  et  seq.}. 

Gummere  gives  also  the  following  references  :  Andrew  Lang, 
International  Folk  Lore  Congress,  1891,  president's  address; 
H.  Spencer,  Sociology  (3d  ed.),  i  :  702  ;  2  :  289,311  ;  Giddings, 
Principles  of  Sociology,  p.  262  ;  H.  Spencer,  Origin  and  Func- 
tion of  Music  (in  Illustrations  of  Universal  Progress.  N.  Y.  : 
1867),  p.  223  et  seq. 

Most  of  the  following  references  have  also  been  kindly 
furnished  by  Professor  Gummere. 

Origins.  —  Karl  Biicher,  Arbeit  u.  Rhythmus,  XVII.  Bd., 
No.  5.  Abh.  d.  konigl.  sachs.  Gesellsch.  d.  Wissensch.  (Leipz. : 
1896.  Interesting  collection  of  labor  songs  to  illustrate  his 
theory  that  song  was  instituted  to  lighten  labor  ;  reviewed 
briefly  by  R.  M.  Meyer  in  Haupt's  Anzeiger,  1897,  also  in  the 
Deutsche  Literaturzcitung,  August  7,  1897  ;  the  book  is  stimu- 
lating ;  considered  by  some  to  be  epoch-making) ;  Karl  Groos, 
Die  Spiele  der  Thiere  (Jena  :  1896.  See  p.  340  for  a  scheme 
of  the  arts)  ;  Diimmler,  in  Haupt's  Zeitschrift  f.  deutsch.  Altert. 
17  :  523  On  the  Refrain  ;  Fr.  Nietzsche,  Die  frohliche  Wissen- 


//.]  THE   ORIGINS   OF  POETRY.  273 

schaft  (Leipz.  :  1887.  Interesting  theory  of  the  origin  of 
poetry)  ;  R.  Fritzsche,  Die  Anfange  der  Poesie  (Progr. 
Chemnitz  :  1886)  ;  F.  M.  Pagano,  Discorso  sulla  origine  e 
natura  della  poesia  (Milano  :  1801)  ;  J.  Darmsteter,  Les 
origines  de  la  poesie  persane  (Paris  :  1888) ;  David  Heinrich 
Miiller,  Die  Propheten  in  ihrer  urspriinglichen  Form  (Wien  : 
1896.  Draws  an  analogy  between  the  Greek  chorus  and  the 
rhapsodies  of  the  Hebrew  prophets  ;  attempts  thus  to  deter- 
mine the  sources  of  Semitic  poetry,  and  concludes  that  the 
prophets  were  successors  to  a  chorus).  On  the  method  of 
poetic  composition,  improvisation,  see  Raube,  Zur  Geschichte  d. 
italien.  Poesie.  Berlin  :  1837. 

In  the  ' thirties'  and  'forties'  of  this  century  a  number  of 
writers  devoted  themselves  to  the  musico-medical  explanation 
of  poetic  origins  and  effects  :  for  instance,  B.  P.  J.  Schneider, 
Die  Musik  u.  Poesie  nach  ihren  Wirkungen  historisch-kritisch 
dargestellt  (Bonn  :  1835)  ;  J.  Keble,  De  poeticae  vi  medica 
(2  vols.  Oxford  :  1844.  Praelectiones  acad.  Oxon.  habitae). 
E.  Hanslick,  Vom  Musikalisch-Schonen,  yth  ed.,  p.  119,  tells 
about  this  school. 

Song  and  Dance.  —  Hartt,  Geology  of  Brazil  (about  p.  600, 
dances  of  Botocudos)  (Boston:  1870);  Karl  Groos,  Die 
Spiele  der  Thiere  (Jena:  1896).  Groos  mentions  W.  H. 
Hudson,  The  Naturalists  in  La  Plata  (incipient  dance  of 
animals),  and  Ratzel,  History  of  Mankind  (trans,  by  Butler, 
Lond.  :  1896.  Anthropological  basis  of  theory).  For  latest 
theories,  see,  of  course,  Tylor's  Primitive  Culture,  and  Anthro- 
pology, and  references  given  by  him  to  standard  works  and 
sources. 

Folk  Song.  —  Talvj  (Fraulein  T.  A.  L.  von  Jacob,  afterwards 
Frau  Robinson),  Characteristik  d.  Volkslieder  germanischer  Na- 
tionen  (Leipz.:  1840;  a  description, with  translations  and  extracts, 
of  folk  songs  of  various  nations  ;  discussion  of  popular  poetry  ; 
one  of  the  first  to  discard  the  idea  that  lyric  is  subsequent  to 


274  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  18. 

epic;  F.  B.  Gummere,  Old  English  Ballads  (Boston:  1894. 
Introduction  for  summary  of  theories  and  bibliography  of  the 
ballad.  Rev.  in  Beibl.  to  Anglia,  May,  1896,  by  Max  Forster. 
See  §  17)  ;  Brugsch,  Adonisklage  u.  Linoslied  (see  Mannhardt, 
Mythologische  Quellen  und  Forschungen,  1884)  ;  J.  Bedier, 
Les  Fabliaux  (Paris  :  1893.  Publ.  par  Bibl.  de  1'ecole  des 
hautes  etudes.  Most  energetically  combats  the  generally 
accepted  theory  that  all  the  Fabliaux  come  from  the  cast)  ; 
Mary  Hewitt,  Literature  and  Romance  of  Northern  Europe 
(translations  of  ballads)  ;  Johnson's  Scott's  Musical  Museum, 
ed.  by  David  Laing  (Edinb.  :  1853.  A  mine  of  material)  ; 
Folk-lore  Quarterly  Rev.  No.  i,  1890  Magic  Songs  of  Finns  ; 
Rev.  de  rhist.  de  religion  (1882),  La  magie  chez  les  Finnois. 
Valuable  references  to  this  whole  subject  of  folk  song  and 
magic  among  the  Finns  will  be  found  in  Comparetti's  Kalevala 
(1892),  p.  22,  note;  Rosenberg,  Nordboernes  Aandsliv  (valu- 
able on  Danish  folk  song)  ;  Fetis,  Histoire  gffnerale  de  la 
musique  (collection  of  ballads  in  vol.  IV)  ;  L.  Hearn,  Atlantic, 
September,  1896  Japanese  folk  songs  ;  Gaston  Paris,  Des 
origines  de  la  poe'sie  lyrique  en  France  au  moyen  age  (Paris  : 
1892)  ;  L.  Jacobowski,  Die  Physik  der  Lyrik,  ein  Beitrag  zu 
einer  realistischen  Poetik  (this  is  an  introduction  to  Die  Anfange 
der  Poesie). 

For  other  references,  see  §  17  above,  and  the  bibliographies 
of  general  histories  of  literature  in  the  next  paragraph,  and  in 
§  21  A  5.  On  rhythm  and  metre  in  this  relation  see  §§  22-24. 

///.  General  Histories  of  Literature.  —  Among  the  histories 
of  literature,  besides  those  already  mentioned,  in  which  a 
systematic  effort  is  made  to  show  the  dependence  of  literature 
on  political  and  social  movements,  may  be  mentioned  the 
following :  John  G.  Eichorn,  Geschichte  der  Litteratur,  von 
ihrem  Anfang  bis  auf  die  neuesten  Zeiten  (6  vols.  Gottingen : 
1805-12.  2d  ed.  1828)  ;  G.  G.  Gervinus,  Handbuch  der 


IV.~\  STUDIES  IN  LITERARY  INFLUENCE.  275 

Geschichte  der  poetischen  Nationalliteratur  (4th  ed.  Leipz.  : 
1849),  and  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dichtung  (5th  ed. 
Leipz.:  1871-74);  K.  Goedecke,  Gruhdriss  zur  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Dichtung  (4  vols.  Dresden  :  1859-81)  ;  J.  G.  T. 
Grasse,  Lehrbuch  einer  allgemeinen  Litteraturgeschichte 
aller  bekannten  Volker  der  Welt,  von  der  altesten  bis  auf  die 
neueste  Zeit  (4  vols.  Leipz.  :  1837-59)  5  Ju^-  Hart,  Geschichte 
der  Weltlitteratur  (2  vols.  Berlin:  1893-96);  K.  A.  Koberstein, 
Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Nationallitteratur 
(Leipz.  :  1827),  and  Entwickelung  der  deutschen  Poesie 
(Braunschweig  :  1865)  ;  Wachler,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte  der 
Litteratur  (3d  ed.  4  vols.  Leipz.:  1833);  S.  Gatschenberger, 
Geschichte  der  englischen  Literatur,  mit  besonderer  Beriick- 
sichtigung  der  politischen  und  Sittengeschichte  Englands  (3  vols. 
Prag  u.  Wien  :  1859-62)  ;  F.  C.  Schlosser,  Weltgeschichte  fur 
das  deutsche  Volk  (2d  ed.  19  vols.  in  10.  Oberhausen  u.  Leipz. : 
1876  ;  vols.  I-II  contain  a  history  of  the  literature  and  culture 
of  the  eighteenth  century).  See  also  §  21,  A  5,  infra. 

IV.  Studies  in  Literary  Influence.  — The  following  mono- 
graphs may  be  examined  as  illustrations  of  studies  in  literary 
influence,  whether  the  influence  of  one  masterpiece  upon  another 
or  of  one  national  literature  upon  another  national  literature  : 
J.  Darmsteter,  Point  de  contact  entre  le  Mahabharata  et  le  Shah- 
Nameh  (Paris  :  1887);  J.  A.  Demogeot,  Histoire  des  litteratures 
e'trangeres  (see  §  17)  ;  E.  Kolbing,  Beitrage  zur  vergleichenden 
Geschichte  der  romantischen  Poesie  und  Prosa  des  Mittelalters 
unter  besonderer  Beriicksichtigung  der  englischen  und  nordi- 
schen  Litteratur  (Breslau  :  1876)  ;  Th.  Siipfle',  Geschichte  d. 
deutsche'n  Kultureinflusses  auf  Frankreich  mit  besond.  Beriick- 
sichtigung d.  litterarischen  Einwirkung  (Bd.  II,  Abth.  I  Von 
Lessing  bis  zum  Ende  der  romant.  Schule  der  Franzosen.  Gotha  : 
1888);  Italo  Pizzi,  Le  somiglianze  et  le  relazioni  tra  la  poesia 
persiana  e  la  nostra  del  medioevo  (R.  Accad.  delle  Scienze. 


276  LITERARY   CRITICISM.  [§  18. 

Torino  :  1892);  G.  Zanella,  Relazioni  poetiche  tra  1'ltalia  e  la 
Spagna  nel  secolo  XVI  (in  Nuova  Antologia.  zd  ser.  39  :  5-20)  ; 
Arthur  H.  Hallam,  Remains  in  Prose  and  Verse  (Boston  :  1863)  ; 
J.  C.  Dunlop,  History  of  Fiction  (2  vols.  Lond.  :  1888) ; 
F.  H.  O.  Weddigen,  Lord  Byron's  Einfluss  auf  die  europaischen 
Litteraturen  der  Neuzeit  (Hannover  :  1884)  ;  F.  H.  O.  Weddigen, 
Geschichte  der  Einwirkungen  der  deutschen  Litteratur  auf  die 
Litteraturen  der  iibrigen  europaischen  Kulturvolker  der  Neuzeit 
(Leipz. :  1882)  ;  Philarete  Chasles,  Orient  :  voyage  d'un  critique 
a  travers  la  vie  et  les  livres  (2e  dd.  Paris  :  1865),  pp.  405-416 
Des  rapports  du  drame  grec  et  du  drame  hindou;  V.  Rossel, 
Histoire  des  relations  litteraires  entre  la  France  et  1'Allemagne 
(Paris  :  1897)  ;  Jos.  Texte,  Revue  de  Cours,  15  Mars,  1896  Les 
relations  litteraires  de  la  France  avec  PAllemagne  avant  le 
milieu  du  xviii6  siecle  ;  Chas.  Jaret,  La  litterature  allemande 
au  xviii6  siecle  dans  ses  rapports  avec  la  litterature  franchise 
et  avec  la  litte'rature  anglaise  (Aix  :  1876)  ;  E.  Egger,  L'Helle- 
nisme  en  France  :  Lemons  sur  1'influence  des  etudes  grecques 
dans  le  developpement  de  la  langue  et  de  la  litterature  franchise 
(2  vols.  Paris  :  1869)  ;  Ed.  Zarncke,  Der  Einfluss  der  griechi- 
schen  Literatur  auf  die  Entwickelung  der  romischen  Prosa 
(Leipz.  :  1888)  ;  Albert  Lacroix,  Histoire  de  1'influence  de 
Shakespeare  sur  le  theatre  fran^ais  jusq'a  nos  jours  ;  Jas.  B. 
Angell,  No.  Am.  Rev.  84  :  311  Influence  of  English  Literature 
on  the  German,  86  :  412  Influence  of  English  Literature  on  the 
French  ;  J.  Burroughs,  Critic,  24  :  177  Greek  Influence  in  Litera- 
ture (see  also  a  reply  by  M.Thompson  in  Critic,  24  :  212);  Ferd. 
Loise,  De  1'influence  de  la  civilization  sur  la  poesie  :  le  moncle 
oriental  et  le  monde  classical  (Bruxelles  :  1858),  L'ltalie  et  la 
France  (Bruxelles  :  1862)  ;  Ferd.  Loise,  Histoire  de  la  poesie 
en  rapport  avec  la  civilization  :  La  poe'sie  espagnole  (Bruxelles  : 
1868),  dans  I'antiquite'  et  chez  les  peuples  modernes  de  race 
latine  (Bruxelles  :  1886),  en  France  depuis  les  origines  jusq'a 
la  fin  du  xviiie  siecle  (Tome  II,  Bruxelles:  1887). 


F.]  MISCELLANEOUS  REFERENCES.  277 

Worthy  of  separate  mention  is  C.  H.  Herford's  Literary 
Relations  of  England  and  Germany  in  the  Sixteenth  Century, 
Cambridge:  1886.  , 

/.  Miscellaneous  References.  —  Brother  Azarias,  Philos- 
ophy of  Literature  (6th  ed.  N.  Y.  :  1890.  See  §  14) ; 
A.  Biese,  Nationalzeitung,  1891,  Nos.  587,  589  Ueber  die  Auf- 
gabe  der  Litteraturgeschichte ;  A.  Graf,  Riv.  di  Fil.,  Genn.— 
Apr.  1877  Considerazione  intorno  alia  storia  letteraria,  a'  suoi 
metodi  e  alle  sue  appartenenze  ;  A.  Graf,  Di  un  trattazione 
scientifica  della  storia  letteraria  (Torino  :  1877)  ;  Jos.  Kohler, 
Zeitschriftf.  vergL  Litt.  1:117  Aesthetik,  Philologie,  und  verglei- 
chende  Litteraturgeschichte  ;  C.  Schlottmann,  De  reipublicae 
literariae  originibus  (Bonn:  1861)  ;  Gottlieb  Stall,  Introductio 
in  historiam  litterariam  (Lat.  vertit  C.  H.  Langius,  Jena  :  1728. 
See  remarks  on  literary  history  at  the  beginning)  ;  Greenough 
White,  The  Philosophy  of  American  Literature  (Boston  :  1891); 
Lord  Lytton,  Quarterly  Essays  (Lond. :  1875),  P-  33^  Love  in 
its  Influence  upon  Literature ;  C.  F.  Girard,  La  Centralization 
des  Lettres  en  France  (Lausanne  :  1866)  ;  G.  Lombroso,  II 
commercio  e  la  letteratura  (Milano :  1842)  ;  R.  S.  Storrs,  Jr., 
Relations  of  Commerce  to  Literature  (Monson  Academy  Dis- 
courses, 1855);  Julius  Salony,  Du  progres  de  I'ide'e  chretienne 
dans  la  litterature  (Paris  :  1861)  ;  R.  Treitschke,  Die  romani- 
schen  Sprachen  und  ihre  Literaturmission :  zur  Volkerpsy- 
chologie  (in  wissensch.  Beilage  der  Leipz.  Zeitg.  1878,  Nos.  53, 
54);  Puymaigre,  La  societe  et  la  litterature  (Paris:  1881); 
W.  Roscoe,  On  the  Origin  and  Vicissitudes  of  Literature,  Science, 
and  Art,  and  their  Influence  on  the  Present  State  of  Society 
(Liverpcfol :  1817.  Address  at  opening  of  the  Liverpool  Royal 
Institute)  ;  F.  Linguiti,  Sul  nuovo  indirizzodegli  studi  letterari 
storici  e  critici,  riguardato  nelle  cause  e  nei  suoi  effetti  (Salerno  : 
1877)  ;  E.  Elster,  Die  Aufgaben  der  Litteraturgeschichte  (Halle 
a.  S.  :  1894)  ;  Otto,  Ueber  die  Bestrebung  um  Begriindung 


278  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  18 

einer  Universallitteratur  (Braunsberg  :  1852)  ;  J.  Nehry,  Aus 
der  Weltlitteratur  (Aschersleben  :  1890)  ;  G.  Perfranceschi,  La 
letteratura,  la  civilta  e  la  scienza  (3*  ed.  Jesi :  1887) ;  A. 
Schroer,  Deutsches  Wochenblatt,  1891:  118  Ueber  die  Auf- 
gabe  der  Litteraturgeschichte  ;  F.  Lammermayer,  Dioskuren, 
19:  181  Gedanken  iiber  Litteraturgeschichte;  J.  J.  Ampere, 
Melanges  d'histoire  litte'raire  et  de  litterature  (2  vols.  Paris: 
1867),  vol  I  De  1'histoire  de  la  poesie. 


t 

CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  THEORY  OF  POETRY. 


§  19.  STATEMENT  OF  THE  PROBLEM  ;  METHOD  OF  STUDY. 

THE  student  should  determine  first  the  relation  of  poetics 
to  rhetoric,  and  of  these  to  what  the  Germans  call  '  stylistic.' 
See  above,  §  15  /,  and  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  Engl.  Philol.,  pp.  343- 
360  ;  Boeckh,  Encycl.  d.  philol.  Wissensch.,  pp.  810-812  ; 
Wackernagel,  Poetik,  Rhetorik,  u.  Stylistik,  p.  409  et  seq.  ; 
Adolf  Calmberg,  Die  Kunst  d.  Rede  (2.  Aufl.  Leipz.  u.  Ziirich  : 
1885)  ;  and  the  best  English  authorities,  Bain,  Minto,  Whately, 
Spalding.  The  question  as  to  whether  metric  should  be  classed 
under  poetics  cannot  satisfactorily  be  decided  before  the  laws 
of  poetic  form  (/,  C  2,  below)  have  been  studied ;  but  an 
introductory  view  of  the  relative  positions  of  metric  and  poetics 
may  be  obtained  from  the  references  above,  and  from  Elze, 
Grundr.,  pp.  360-363  ;  Gummere,  Poetics  ;  Stedman,  Nature 
and  Elements  of  Poetry,  pp.  8-27,  60-62  ;  Lanier,  Science  of 
Verse ;  Wordsworth,  Prefaces  to  the  Lyrical  Ballads,  and 
Appendix  ;  Coleridge,  Poe,  and  others,  as  given  in  §§  20,  23, 
below.  On  the  relation  of  poetics  to  aesthetics,  and  therefore 
of  poetry  to  art  in  general,  Kedney's  Hegel's  Aesthetics, 
pp.  263-273  ;  von  Hartmann's  Aesthetik,  pp.  524-580  ;  Boeckh's 
Encykl.,  pp.  464-473,  536-553,  and  references  in  §§  8  and 
20  may  be  consulted. 

The  critical  study  of  poetry  as  determined  by  fundamental 
principles  of  art  may  be  conducted  as  follows  : 


280  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  19,  /. 

/.  Elementary  Conceptions.  —  Passing  the  principal  theories 
of  poetry  in  review,  the  student  will  observe  (A)  that  many 
definitions  mistake  the  poetic  faculty  for  the  art ;  (£}  that 
some  definitions,  limiting  themselves  to  its  nature,  and  others 
to  its  aim,  fail  to  distinguish  poetry  from  art  in  general ;  (C) 
that  no  definition  is  adequate  which  does  not  characterize 
(i)  the  subject  of  treatment  ;  (2)  the  form  of  expression ;  and 
(3)  the  process  of  execution. 

A.  In  the  attempt  to  discriminate  between  the  poetic  faculty 
and   the  poetic  creation  or  product,   premises   not  based  upon 
psychological  principles  will  be  found  to  be  of  little  worth.     The 
psychologies  of  Dewey,  Sully,  Baldwin,  Murray,  and  James  will 
furnish  a  working  conception  of  the  position  of  poetry  among 
other  modes  of  expression,  and  of  the  nature  of  the  artistic  faculty 
in  general.     It  will  then  be  clear  that  all  such  expositions  of 
poetry  as  the  following,  —  "  The  universal  art  of  the  mind,  free  in 
its  own  nature,  and  not  tied  to  expression  in  sensuous  matter  " 
(Hegel), —  have  reference  to  the  general  artistic  imagination,  and 
not  to  the  special  poetic  gift,  or  the  poetic  product.     They  have, 
therefore,  only  an  indirect  bearing  upon  the  definition  of  poetry. 

B.  While  distinguishing  between  the  nature  and  the  purpose 
of  poetry,  the  student  will  notice  that  some  definitions  treat  of 
the  one  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other,  and  are,  for  that  reason, 
inadequate.  . 

i.  On  the  one  hand,  it  is  evident  that  abstract  definitions  of 
the  nature  of  poetry,  such  as  Shelley's  "something  divine,"  the 
"centre  and  circumference  of  knowledge,"  "the  record  of  the 
best  and  happiest  moments  of  the  happiest  and  best  minds," 
fail  to  show  the  difference  between  poetry  and  the  other  arts. 
This  criticism  applies  to  Wordsworth's,  "  Poetry  is  the  breath, 
the  finer  spirit  of  all  knowledge  .  .  .  the  impassioned  expres- 
sion ...  in  the  countenance  of  all  science  " ;  to  Bailey's,  "  It 
is  itself  a  thing  of  God  "  (Festus)  ;  and  to  a  host  of  similar 
sympathetic  but  vague  evaluations. 


B.}  ELEMENTARY  CONCEPTIONS.  281 

2.  An  examination,  on  the  other  hand,  into  the  aim  or  func- 
tion of  poetry  involves  the  vexed  question  of  all  arts :  Is  its 
purpose  aesthetic  or  ethical,  or  both  ?  Materials  for  the  answer 
to  this  question  are  furnished  above,  §§  7-9  and  13-15.  If  it 
be  determined  that  the  purpose  is  purely  aesthetic,  an  array  of 
specific  questions  confronts  the  student.  What,  for  instance, 
is  the  history  of  the  aesthetic  exposition  of  poetry  ?  (See 
Bosanquet,  Schasler,  or  Knight,  and  other  references  in  §§  9 
and  15,  for  the  development  of  aesthetic  interest  before  Kant.) 
The  statement  is  made  that  Hegel  is  the  most  pronounced 
exponent  of  the  purely  aesthetic  theory  of  poetry.  But  Burke 
and  Kaimes  in  the  purgation  theory  of  tragedy,  Kant  with 
his  demarcation  of  aesthetic  consciousness  in  the  Kritik  der 
Urtheilskraft  (1790),  Schiller  with  his  doctrine  of  aesthetic 
culture  and  his  development  of  the  Kantian  theory  in  the 
doctrines  of  aesthetic  semblance  and  the  play-impulse,  Goethe 
with  his  belief  in  the  characteristic  as  the  excellent  in  art, 
and  Schelling  with  his  treatment  of  the  ideal  nature  of  poetry, 
had  prepared  the  way  for  Hegel's  definition  of  the  aesthetic 
purpose  of  poetry  as  of  all  art ;  and  it  will  be  observed  that 
Wordsworth  ("  the  end  of  Poetry  is  to  produce  excitement  in 
coexistence  with  an  overbalance  of  pleasure,"  Preface  to  Lyri- 
cal Ballads,  1800),  Coleridge  in  his  antithesis  between  poetry 
and  science,  Sir  Henry  Taylor,  Dallas,  and  Pater,  follow  in 
the  steps  of  these  masters. 

In  the  next  place,  the  value  of  current  conceptions  of  the 
aesthetic  function  of  poetry  may  be  considered,  first,  of 
the  more  popular,  those,  for  instance,  presented  by  Poe  in  his 
Poetic  Principle  ;  by  Theodore  Watts  in  his  article  in  the 
Encycl.  -Brit. ;  by  Shelley  in  his  Defense  of  Poetry ;  by  Leigh 
Hunt ;  by  Principal  Shairp  (the  aim  of  poetry  is  to  express  the 
glow  of  emotion,  the  thrill  of  joy) ;  by  Goldsmith  (poetry  is 
"  so  contrived  and  executed  as  to  soothe  the  ear,  surprise  and 
delight  the  fancy,  mend  and  melt  the  heart,  elevate  the  mind, 


282  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§19,7. 

and  please  the  understanding  ");  by  Ruskin  (it  is  "the  present- 
ment in  musical  form,  to  the  imagination,  of  noble  grounds  for 
the  noble  emotions");  by  F.  W.  Newman  (it  moves  "the  affec- 
tions through  the  imagination");  and  by  others  whose  works 
are  cited  in  the  following  section.  It  will  be  noted  that  most  of 
these  definitions  are  as  appropriate  to  the  genus  art  as  to  the 
species  poetry.  Second,  the  value  of  the  more  scientific  explana- 
tions may  be  considered  :  for  instance,  the  aesthetic  effect  of 
poetry  as  defined  by  Dallas  ;  the  theories  advanced  by  Herbert 
Spencer  in  his  Philosophy  of  Style ;  by  Butcher  (Aristotle's 
Art  of  Poetry),  Gurney  (Power  of  Sound  and  Tertium  Quid). 
Humboldt  (Poetic  Description  of  Nature),  Grant  Allen  (Physio- 
logical Aesthetics),  and  the  luminous  exposition  by  J.  S.  Mill 
in  his  Dissertation  on  Poetry  and  its  Varieties. 

As  with  the  aesthetic,  so  with  the  frequently  asserted  ethical 
function  of  poetry,  a  systematic  inquiry  can  be  prosecuted  only 
when  a  clear  understanding  has  been  reached  concerning  the 
ideas  and  materials  with  which  poetry  deals,  the  manner  of  its 
procedure,  and  the  form  inherent  in  it.  Careful  consideration 
may  show  that  the  supposed  ethical  function  is  not  a  function, 
but  an  after-effect  contingent  upon  the  training  and  temper  of 
the  reader.  Ruskin  would  appear  to  lean  to  the  didactic  rather 
than  to  the  aesthetic  side  of  the  question,  and  with  varying 
fitness  the  same  may  be  said  of  Plato,  Horace  (Ars  Poetica), 
Lessing  (in  his  theory  of  the  tragic  catharsis),  Carlyle  (Essay 
on  Goethe),  Emerson  (Poetry  and  Imagination),  Matthew 
Arnold,  and  many  others  cited  in  §  20. 

C.  No  definition  is  adequate  which  does  not  characterize 
(i)  the  subject  of  treatment ;  (2)  the  form  of  expression  ;  and 
(3)  the  process  of  execution. 

i.  The  subject  of  treatment  consists,  first,  of  a  theme  or  idea 
(the  glorification  of  a  god,  a  hero,  a  country,  a  mistress  ;  the 
discharge  of  emotion,  the  portrayal  of  life  or  character,  the 
description  of  nature,  the  utterance  of  the  meaning  of  things), 


C.]  ELEMENTARY  CONCEPTIONS.  283 

and  secondly,  of  materials  (actual  or  imaginative).  For  theories 
of  the  idea  or  theme  appropriate  to  and  inspiring  poetic  expres- 
sion, see  Hegel,  Carriere,  Schiller,  Goethe,  Coleridge,  J.  S. 
Mill,  Watts,  and  Everett ;  on  the  materials,  see  Paul,  Grundr.  d. 
german.  Phil.,  vol.  I,  p.  141.  Since,  however,  certain  themes  and 
materials  respectively  seem  to  be  adapted  to  poetic  treatment 
in  one  period  rather  than  in  another,  —  since,  for  instance, 
the  phenomena  of  natural  life,  the  element  of  the  mysterious, 
romantic  incidents,  and  machinery  seem  to  possess  no  poetic 
capability  in  one  age,  but  are  poetically  productive  in  the  ages 
immediately  preceding  and  succeeding,  it  would  appear  that  the 
'  poetical '  resides  not  in  the  theme  and  material  which  consti- 
tute the  subject  of  treatment,  but  rather  in  the  poet's  conception 
of  that  subject.  (See  Courthope's  Liberal  Movement,  and  the 
Bowles  and  Byron  controversy  concerning  Pope.)  If  it  be 
conceded  that  this  is  so,  the  characterization  of  the  subject  of 
poetry  implies  a  theory  of  poetic  conception,  and  must  depend  for 
its  success  upon  a  consideration  of  the  third  topic  of  this  analy- 
sis,—  the  process  of  poetic  execution.  But  if  this  be  not  con- 
ceded, the  question  is  very  much,  perhaps  too  much,  simplified  ; 
and  it  will  be  found  that,  so  far  as  the  theory  of  poetry  turns 
upon  the  definition  of  the  subject-matter  (without  consideration 
of  modification  by  the  poetic  process),  it  does  not  admit  of  any 
great  difference  of  opinion.  Hegel,  Lessing,  Jean  Paul,  and 
Carriere,  for  whom  poetry  "  speaks  out  the  inner  thought  that 
lies  in  things,"  may  be  classed  not  only  with  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
for  whom  poetry  is  a  "  learning  so  universal  that  no  learned 
nation  doth  despise  it  nor  no  barbarous  nation  is  without  it," 
but  with  Schopenhauer,  who  makes  it  the  highest  objectification 
of  the-  idea  of  man  ;  and  Schopenhauer  will  agree  with  Schiller, 
for  whom  poetry  expresses  "  humanity  as  completely  as  possible." 
Advancing,  then,  to  recent  critics,  —  though  Gurney,  Austin, 
and  Arnold  may  quarrel  about  the  poetic  process,  do  they  not 
still  agree  with  reference  to  its  subject-matter  ?  And  does  not 


284  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§19,7. 

this  subject-matter —  life  and  thought  —  include  that  "  sponta- 
neous overflow  of  the  feelings,"  that  "  imaginative  passion,'' 
which  in  the  opinion  of  Wordsworth,  Hazlitt,  Leigh  Hunt, 
J.  S.  Mill,  Keble,  and  Principal  Shairp,  are  the  prime  stuff  of 
poetry?  In  fine,  if  we  eliminate  all  reference  to  the  poetic 
process,  is  it  absurd  to  conceive  of  materialists,  associationists, 
and  idealists  adopting  a  common  definition  ? 

It  must  be  remembered  that  theories  of  this  kind,  treating  of 
the  content  of  poetry,  presuppose  the  aesthetic  form  appropriate 
to  the  content,  even  when  they  do  not  explicitly  mention  it. 
Emerson,  when  he  calls  poetry  "  the  only  verity,  the  expression 
of  a  sound  mind  speaking  after  the  ideal,  not  after  the  apparent,'' 
Hegel,  when  he  says  broadly  that  it  is  the  art  of  the  mind 
"  expatiating  in  the  inner  space  and  in  the  inner  time  of  the 
ideas  and  feelings,"  Carlyle,  when  he  weighs  it  as  "  musical 
thought,"  Rowland  Hazard,  when  he  uses  the  term  as  "  synony- 
mous with  the  language  of  ideality,"  —  none  of  these  forget  that, 
while  it  conveys  the  ideal,  poetry  is  uttering  the  beautiful,  for 
in  their  view  the  ideal  and  the  beautiful  are  complements  one 
of  the  other.  Careful  discrimination  must,  therefore,  be  made 
between  these  theories  and  those  which,  attempting  to  sever 
form  from  content,  make  an  abstraction  of  the  form  and  emphasize 
its  beauty.  Such  expositions  would  define  poetry  as  mere  form, 
"any  composition  in  verse"  (Whately),  or  as  any  language 
capable  of  producing  an  illusion  on  the  imagination  :  "the  art  of 
doing  by  words  what  the  painter  does  by  means  of  colors " 
(Macaulay).  Are  the  latter  definitions  at  all  ?  May  we  thus 
ignore  the  claims  of  thought  to  individuality  of  expression  ? 
Can  different  artistic,  or  even  poetic,  forms  convey  the  same 
aesthetic  idea  ?  Does  form  alone  constitute  poetry  ?  Do  all 
arts  produce  an  illusion  upon  the  imagination  ?  or  does  all 
poetry  ? 

2.  The  Form  of  Expression.  —  Though  definitions  which 
confine  themselves  to  the  form  of  poetry  are  one-sided,  no 


C.]  ELEMENTARY  CONCEPTIONS.  285 

definition  can  be  complete  that  does  not  cover  the  technique  of 
the  art  (rhythm  ;  verse  ;  diction  ;  £y_p_e  —  lyric,  epic,  dramatic  ;  \ 
species  —  tragedy,  comedy,  sonnet,  hymn).  The  scientific  ' 
study  of  poetic  form  involves,  first,  an  examination  of  the 
treatises  which  discuss  it  from  the  physical  and  physiological 
side,  —  for  example,  Grant  Allen's  Physiological  Aesthetics, 
Spencer's  First  Principles,  Fiske's  Cosmic  Philosophy,  Alexander 
von  Humboldt's  Cosmos  (Poetic  Description  of  Nature),  Gurney's 
Power  of  Sound  ;  second,  of  more  technical  works  on  versifi- 
cation, such  as  those  by  Lanier,  Schipper,  Mayor,  Guest,  Paul, 
Sievers,  etc.,  mentioned  and  discussed  in  §§  22-24  below  ; 
third,  of  the  history  of  language  especially  as  an  instrument  of 
poetry  ;  fourth,  of  the  history  and  technique  of  the  various 
literary  types. 

3.  The  Process  of  Execution. — The  consideration  of  the 
manner  is  as  important  as  that  of  the  subject  or  of  the  form. 
It  is  the  question  of  the  how.  How  are  theme  and  material,  on 
the  one  hand,  literary  type  or  species,  language,  rhythm,  and 
metre,  on  the  other,  so  combined  and  modified  as  to  produce  a 
result  which  is  not  the  sum,  but  the  fusion  of  the  two  ?  What  is 
the  nature  of  the  faculties  exercised  by  the  poet,  the  nature  of 
the  faculties  to  which  he  appeals,  the  nature  of  the  appeal 
itself  ?  For  the  investigation  of  the  nature,  stages,  and  opera- 
tion of  imagination,  its  relation  to  the  processes  of  knowledge, 
to  other  operations  of  the  intellect  and  other  modes  of  mental 
activity,  see  Dewey's  Psychology,  chap.  VII  ;  Cohen's  Dichte- 
rische  Phantasie  ;  Sully's  Psychology,  chap.  VIII  ;  Maudsley's 
Physiology  of  Mind,  pp.  522-533  ;  Lewes's  Problems  of  Life 
and  Mind,  3d  series,  pt.  II,  pp.  445-463  ;  Frohschammer's  Die 
Phantasie,  pp.  73-141  ;  Everett's  Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty, 
p.  92  ;  Shelley's  Defense  ;  Masson  ;  Courthope,  p.  30  ;  Austin's 
Introduction  to  the  Human  Tragedy  ;  Coleridge  (on  Fancy 
and  Imagination);  Ruskin ;  J.  H.  Newman  ;  Hazlitt,  etc.,  as 
in  §  20  below.  Note  especially  the  psychological  distinction 


286  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§19,7. 

between  fancy  and  creative  imagination.  For  studies  of  the 
quality  and  function  of  the  aesthetic  feelings,  the  value  and 
meaning  of  illusion,  and  the  nature  of  that  "  indirectness  " 
which  Keble,  Mill,  Gurney,  and  others  consider  a  prime  quality 
of  poetic  expression,  see  Lemcke's  Populare  Aesthetik  ;  Kant's 
Critique  of  Judgment  (transl.  by  Bernard) ;  Grant  Allen's  Phys. 
Aesth.  ;  Sully's  Sensation  and  Intuition,  pp.  186-245  5  Bain's 
Emotions  and  Will,  pp.  247-270  ;  Siebeck's  Wesen  d.  aestheti- 
schen  Anschauung ;  and  other  works  referred  to  in  §§  8  and  9 
above. 

No  more  lucid  essays  on  the  general  bearings  of  the  questions 
involved  in  this  analysis  of  poetry  can  be  found  than  Theodore 
Watts's  Poetry  (Encycl.  Brit,  gth  ed.),  and  E.  C.  Stedman's 
Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry. 

As  was  stated  under  the  paragraph  on  the  subject  of  treat- 
ment, many  critical  controversies  have  turned  on  the  question 
of  the  poetic  conception,  that  is,  the  question  whether  the  poeti- 
cal lies  in  the  subject  itself  or  in  the  process  by  which  the 
subject  is  worked  up.  The  most  famous  is  the  controversy 
between  the  so-called  Aristotelians  and  the  so-called  Baconians. 
According  to  the  former,  poetry  is  imitative  ;  according  to  the 
latter,  creative.  For  an  introduction  to  the  subject,  the  student 
is  referred  to  the  study  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  (on  Imitation) 
in  §  9,  //,  8,  above  ;  especially,  also,  to  Butcher's  Aristotle's 
Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art.  It  being  determined  what 
Aristotle  means  by  "poetry  is  imitation,"  Poetics,  i  :  2,  the  inter- 
pretations suggested  by  his  followers  should  be  passed  in 
review ;  for  instance,  Longinus,  Horace,  Dryden,  Boileau, 
Dr.  Johnson  ("  Poetry  is  a  mirror  of  manners  and  of  life  "), 
Wordsworth  (poetry  is  "the  image  of  man  and  nature.  .  .  . 
The  spontaneous  overflow  of  powerful  feelings  :  it  takes  its  origin 
from  emotion  remembered  in  tranquillity  ")  ;  Landor,  Hazlitt, 
Colvin  (poetry  "  represents  everything  for  which  verbal  signs 
have  been  invented  ").  On  the  other  hand,  turning  to  Bacon, 


C.]  ELEMENTARY  CONCEPTIONS.  287 

who  appears  to  adopt  unequivocally  Plato's  teaching  that 
poetry  is  the  product  of  inspiration,  the  student  must  deter- 
mine (i)  whether  -the  creative  character  of  poetry  as  empha- 
sized by  him  and  his  followers  may  not  be  gathered  from  the 
teachings  of  Aristotle  as  well,  and  (2)  whether  poetry  according 
to  the  theory  of  Plato  and  Bacon  does  or  can  free  itself  of  the 
element  of  imitation  as  emphasized  by  Aristotle.  "  Poetry," 
says  Bacon,  "  is  (in  respect  of  matter)  nothing  else  but  feigned 
history."  That  is  to  say,  it  is  creative  ;  but  is  not  "feigned 
history "  at  the  same  time  an  imaginative  imitation  ?  And 
when  Bacon  says,  "  Poesy  feign eth  acts  and  events  greater 
and  more  heroical  (than  doth  history),  ...  it  doth  raise 
and  erect  the  mind  by  submitting  the  shows  of  things  to  the 
desires  of  the  mind,"  does  he  uphold  the  creative  character  of 
poetry  any  more  decidedly  than  Aristotle,  who  says,  "  Poetry  is 
superior  to,  and  more  philosophic  than  history,"  and  "  It  is 
not  a  poet's  business  to  relate  what  occurred,  but  what  might 
occur  "  ?  Among  writers  who  espouse  the  creative  as  opposed 
to  the  imitative  theory  are  Plotinus,  Emerson,  Carlyle,  Browning, 
Goethe  ("  Art  is  art  because  it  is  not  nature  "),  Shelley,  Leigh 
Hunt,  Dallas,  and  Masson.  Sir  Philip  Sidney's  Defense  of 
Poesy  combines  in  one  flawless  masterpiece  the  ideality  of 
Plato's  theory  and  the  necessity  of  Aristotle's. 

In  connection  with  this  question,  the  controversy  between 
Bowles  and  Byron  concerning  the  merits  of  Pope  deserves 
attention.  The  points  upon  which  it  turned  were,  first,  the 
relative  value  of  images  drawn  from  nature  and  images  drawn 
from  art ;  and  second,  the  relative  value  of  subject  and  execu- 
tion. (See  the  famous  papers  in  the  Pamphleteer,  17:73; 
18  :  33~i,  571  ;  and  Courthope,  p.  6.) 

Of  great  importance  to  English  poetry  was  the  classic-roman- 
tic dispute  originating  with  Wordsworth's  Preface  to  the  Lyrical 
Ballads.  It  can  be  followed  through  Jeffrey's  articles  in  the 
Edinburgh  Review,  and  the  contributions  to  Black-wood's,  the 


288  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§19,77. 

Quarterly,  Eraser's,  etc.,  as  cited  under  Wordsworth,  §  20  below. 
See  also  Bagehot's  Edinburgh  Reviewers  and  Caine's  Cobwebs 
of  Criticism.  In  these  controversies  the  question  at  issue  de- 
pended for  its  solution  upon  a  definition  of  the  imaginative 
process.  The  distinctions  drawn  by  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge 
between  imagination  and  fancy,  and  poetry  and  science,  pointed 
the  way  to  a  more  profitable  discussion  of  the  subject. 

In  recent  times  we  come  to  the  triangular  contest  between 
Arnold,  Austin,  and  Swinburne,  which  originated  with  Arnold's 
dictum,  "  Poetry  is  at  bottom  a  criticism  of  life,"  and  centered 
about  the  respective  poetic  merits  of  Wordsworth,  Byron,  and 
Shelley.  (For  references,  see  under  Austin  and  Swinburne, 
§  20.)  This  discussion  has  resulted  in  the  formulation  of 
various  canons  of  judgment  as  a  basis  of  criticism  ;  for  instance, 
Austin  says  that  poetry  must  transfigure  life  ;  Bain,  that  it 
must  assimilate  it ;  Shairp,  that  it  must  penetrate;  Masson,  that 
it  must  produce  a  new  and  artificial  concrete ;  Swinburne,  that  it 
must  do  nothing  that  can  be  formulated,  it  must  simply  elude ; 
and  with  him  Gurney  may  be  said  to  concur.  On  the  course 
of  poetics  in  England,  see  §  21,  2.  For  the  history  of  these 
and  similar  critical  movements  in  Germany  and  France,  see 

§  81,  B  3,  4. 

For  the  psychology  of  imitation  and  invention,  and  the 
relation  between  the  two,  see  Baldwin's  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations  of  Mental  Development,  and  Professor  Royce's 
article  on  the  Psychology  of  Invention,  in  Psychological  Review, 
5  :  II3> 

//.  Scheme  of  Investigation.  —  As  a  foundation  for  con- 
structive work  the  following  scheme  is  submitted  : 

A.  THE  HISTORICAL  SIDE  OF  THE  SUBJECT.  —  i .  The  Evolution 
of  Poetry.  (See  §§  16-18,  and  21,  A,  for  suggestions.)  2.  History 
of  Theories  of  Poetry.  (See  §  21,  £,  for  suggestions.) 


£.]  SCHEME    OF  INVEST1GA  TION.  289 

B.  THE  THEORETICAL  SIDE.  —  i.  The  Relation  of  Art  to  Science, 
Philosophy,  Ethics,  and  Religion.  —  The  distinction  between 
poetry  and  the  other  arts  ;  the  boundaries  of  poetry  and  paint- 
ing ;  of  poetry  and  music,  etc.  The  distinction  between  poetry 
and  history.  Aristotle,  Poetics,  9  ;  Sidney,  Defense  of  Poesy 
(Cook's  ed.,  p.  18)  ;  Bosanquet,  Hist.  Aesth.,  p.  59  ;  Butcher, 
Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry,  chaps.  Ill  and  XI.  Is  poetry  a 
term  applicable  to  all  the  arts  ?  (Plato,  Aristotle,  Lessing, 
Kant,  Schiller,  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Mill.)  Is  not  the 
distinction  between  poetry  and  other  literature  of  power  that 
of  the  absolute  and  the  relative,  prose  and  verse  being  less 
or  more  appropriate  instruments  of  poetry,  and  poetry  (or 
absolute  literature)  being  the  emotive  expression  or  suggestion 
of  an  aesthetic  interpretation  of  things,  by  means  of  the  rhyth- 
mical and  imaginative  language  proper  to  the  subject  ? 

2.  The  Materials  of  Poetry.  —  (a)  Of  Idea  (Aristotle,  Poetics, 
9;    15;    18:6;    24;    25.     Butcher's    Aristotle's    Theory    of 
Poetry,  chapters  on    Poetic  Truth  and   Universality.     Kant's 
Critique  of  Judgment,  Schiller's  Aesthetic  Letters,  Eckermann's 
Conversations  of  Goethe  (Bohn),  p.  258,  Coleridge,  Biographia 
Literaria,  2  :  41). 

(b)  Of  Form.  The  word  basis,  the  sentence  basis,  the  rhetori- 
cal and  logical  bases  ;  pitch,  stress,  quantity,  and  tone  ;  rhythm  ; 
speech-tunes  ;  cadences  ;  rhythms  of  nature ;  imagery  and 
verse,  which  the  more  essential  ?  The  sensuous  element  in 
relation  to  the  imaginative.  (See  §§  22-24.  Lanier,  Ellis, 
Schipper,  Gurney,  Kawczynski.) 

(<r)  Of  Organism.  Whether  the  organic  structure  contains 
elements  not  present  in  the  materials  either  of  idea  or  form. 
If  the  organism  is  not  the  sum,  is  it  the  product  of  idea  and 
form  ? 

3.  How    the   Materials    are   Manipulated.  —  The    question 
should   be  looked  at  from  ;^<z)  the    physical    point   of   view; 
(b)   the   psychological  ;    (c^    the   ethical;    and    the   following 


290  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§19,77. 

subjects  will  demand  consideration  :  (i)  the  faculties  aroused 
and  employed  by  the  poetic  impulse  ;  (2)  the  effect  of  mood 
and  imaginative  training  upon  the  appreciation  of  poetry ; 
(3)  the  relation  of  poetic  truth,  beauty,  and  '  accent '  to  other 
truth,  beauty,  and  '  accent '  (Arnold)  ;  (4)  the  signification 
of  proportion,  harmony,  aesthetic  economy  (Spencer,  Dewey), 
and  rhythm  ;  (5)  the  relation  of  rhythm  to  idea  ;  (6)  the 
relation  of  metre  and  rhythm  to  each  other  and  to  language  ; 
(7)  the  difference  between  rhythmical  prose  and  rhythmical 
verse  ;  (8)  whether  verse  is  a  quality  of  poetry,  or  an  instru- 
ment ;  whether  rhythmical  prose  may  be  used  by  poetry,  and 
whether  unmetrical  or  unrhythmical  verbal  expression  could  be 
so  used ;  (9)  the  difference  of  effect  between  imaginative 
verse  and  imaginative  prose  (Gurney),  and  whether  the  charm 
of  rhythm  and  metre  lies  in  the  illusion  that  they  create  ; 
(10)  whether  poetry  is  imaginative  language  plus  metrical 
form ;  or  whether  the  effect  is  the  product  of  the  ear  pleasure 
and  the  mind  pleasure  (Gurney)  ;  (n)  whether  poetry  is  a 
"  heightened  form  of  prose  "  ;  (12)  whether  poetry  can  be  turned 
into  prose,  still  retaining  the  poetic  flavor,  or  be  translated,  as 
poetry,  from  one  language  into  another  ;  (13)  whether  poetry 
is  representative  or  presentative,  imitative  or  creative,  pene- 
trative, '  magical '  (Gurney),  or  suggestive.  See  Plato,  Aristotle, 
Plotinus,  etc.,  on  Imitation,  §  9  above,  Kant,  Lessing,  Goethe, 
Schiller,  Hegel,  Wordsworth,  Arnold,  Austin,  Gurney,  Everett, 
and  others  ;  (14)  whether  all  theories  of  poetry  may  be 
reduced  to  the  creative-imitative  classification. 

4.  The  Purpose  of  Poetry.  —  (a)  Aesthetic.  Whether  the 
pleasure  conveyed  by  poetry  is  essential  to  the  purpose,  or  acci- 
dental. Does  the  pleasure  of  the  reader  lie  in  the  momentary 
relief  from  worldly  care,  —  from  the  sense  of  actuality  ?  in  the 
opportunity  afforded  the  emotions  to  '  discharge  '  themselves 
impersonally  ?  in  the  aesthetic  contemplation  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  life  ?  Does  the  author  aim  at  giving  pleasure  to  others, 


B.]  SCHEME   OF  INVESTIGATION.  291 

or,  by  finding  expression  in  poetry,  is  he  merely  fulfilling  his  own 
play-impulse,  or  duty-impulse,  or  impulse  of  idealization  ?  For 
further  suggestions  on  this  point,  see  §§  7-9  and  46-48. 

(V)  Ethical.  Whether  the  principal  aim  of  poetry  is  aes- 
thetic or  ethical.  Is  it  the  purpose  of  poetry  to  teach  truth  and 
virtue  through  the  medium  of  imaginative  and  rhythmical 
word  form  ?  to  '  transfigure '  life,  be  a  '  guide '  for  it,  '  criticise  '  it, 
or  display  the  '  seriousness'  of  it?  Compare  Matthew  Arnold's 
"  high  seriousness  "  with  the  <£iA.oo-o</>o>Tepov  /cat  cnrovBaiorcpov 
of  Aristotle  (Poetics,  9  :  3),  with  Horace's  Os  tenerum  pueri  bal- 
bumque  poeta  figurat,  etc.  (Epist.  II,  i  :  126)  ;  his  Carmine  di 
superi  placantur,  carmine  manes  (Epist.  II,  i  :  138)  ;  his  Aut 
prodesse  volunt,  aut  delectare poetae,  Aut  simul  et  jucunda  et  idonea 
dicere  vitae  (Ars  Poetica,  333,  334);  .his  Omne  tulit  punctum 
(Ars  Poetica,  343)  ;  with  Butcher's  Theory  of  Poetry,  chaps.  IV 
and  V,  and  with  Wordsworth's  "  Its  object  is  truth,  general  and 
operative." 

5 .  The  Effect  of  Poetry  upon  the  Percipient.  —  (a)  Physiological. 
The  immediate  effect  of  poetry,  read  or  heard,  upon  the  senses 
of  sight  and  hearing. 

(b)  Psychological,  (i)  Is  the  effect  unanalyzable  ;  and  if  it 
be,  shall  we  call  the  unknown  quantity  non-reasonable  (Gurney), 
or  non-reasoned  ?  It  will  be  necessary  to  distinguish  precisely 
between  the  sensuous,  the  intellectual,  and  the  aesthetic  feelings. 
(2)  Consider  the  effect  upon  the  emotions  of  the  unselfish 
pleasure  awakened  by  art.  (3)  What  is  the  effect  of  poetic 
illusion  ?  (4)  of  the  presentation  to  the  mind  of  ideal  values  ? 
and  (5)  of  the  universal  appeal  to  the  sympathies  which  is 
claimed  as  a  prerogative  of  poetry  ?  (6)  Discriminate  between 
kinds  of  images  —  as  visual,  auditory,  tactile,  etc.  —  summoned 
to  the  mind  by  poetic  presentations.  See  the  psychologies  of 
James,  Dewey,  Spencer,  Sully,  Titchener  ;  also  Ferrier's  Func- 
tions of  Imagination  in  his  Human  Mind,  Maudsley's  Physi- 
ology of  Mind,  Azam's  Hypnotisme  et  Double  Conscience, 


292.  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  19,  //. 

Gallon's  Inquiries  into  Human  Faculty  (also  in  Fortn.  Sept., 
1880,  and  Mind,^:  551,  and  5  1301);  Binet's  articles  on  'Mental 
Images'  in  Rev.  Philos.  23  :  473,  and  27  :  337  ;  Paulhan's 
Le  langage  interieur  in  Rev.  Philos.  21:26  •  articles  in  the 
same  periodical,  18  :  685,  and  22  :  i,  by  Strieker.  (7)  What 
effect  does  the  predominance  in  the  poet  of  a  certain  kind  of 
imaginative  power,  as  the  visual,  have  upon  the  character 
of  his  poetic  imagery  ?  (8)  Does  Tennyson,  for  instance,  incline 
to  visual  or  to  auditory  imagery?  (9)  The  imagery  of  the 
following  poets  should  be  examined  :  Homer,  Aeschylus, 
Dante,  Marlowe,  Shakespeare,  Swinburne,  Rossetti,  Wm.  Blake, 
Coleridge,  Wordsworth.  (10)  Examine  the  imagery  of  poets 
blind  from  infancy,  as  Blacklock;  of  those  who  have  lost 
their  sight  in  youth  or  in  mature  years,  as  Milton  or  Philip 
Bourke  Marston.  (11)  To  what  faculties  does  poetry  appeal  ? 
(12)  Compare  poetic  imagination  with  scientific.  (13)  What 
part  do  the  emotions  of  the  reader  play  in  determining  his 
poetic  sensitiveness? 

(<-)  Ethical.  Whether  the  moral  effect  is  direct,  or  indirect 
(by  way  of  emotional  and  imaginative  effect).  Whether  such 
expositions  as  the  following  do  not  depend  for  their  appli- 
cability upon  the  imaginative  and  moral  condition  of  the 
individual  who  reads  or  hears  the  poetry  in  question  :  "  Poetry 
was  the  first  philosophy  that  ever  was  known,  whereby  men 
from  their  childhood  were  brought  to  the  reason  how  to  live 
well,  learning  thereby  not  only  manners  and  natural  affections, 
but  also  the  wonderful  works  of  Nature,  mixing  serious  matter 
with  things  pleasant  "  (Sir  Thos.  Elyot,  about  1531)  ;  "  For  he 
(our  poet)  doth  not  only  show  the  way,  but  giveth  so  sweet  a 
prospect  into  the  way  as  will  entice  any  man  to  enter  into  it  " 
(Sidney,  Defense  of  Poesy)  ;  cf.  4  b  above,  references  to 
Horace. 

6.  Whether  Didactic  Verse  may  be  Classed  as  Poetry.  —  Dis- 
cuss Pope's  Essays  on  Man  and  on  Criticism,  Virgil's  Georgics, 


C.]  SCHEME   OF  INVESTIGATION.  293 

Hesiod's  Works  and  Days,  Horace's  Ars  Poetica,  Boileau's 
.  L'Art  poetique,  Browning's  La  Saisiaz,  Sordello,  Fifine,  and 
Parleyings,  the  Phenomena  of  Aratus,  Darwin's  Botanic  Garden, 
Drayton's  Polyolbion,  Phineas  Fletcher's  Purple  Island,  Words- 
worth's Excursion,  the  poems  of  Langland  and  Gower,  Young's 
Night  Thoughts. 

7 .  General  Considerations.  —  Discussion  of  Inadequate  Defi- 
nitions and  of  the  Principles  Underlying  Them.  —  Is  it  a  reason- 
able or  a  profitable  business  to  compare  poets  in  respect 
of  excellence  ?  Should  poets  of  form,  of  color,  of  sound,  be 
classified  in  the  same  list?  Can  we  classify  the  poet's  poet 
with  the  people's  poet  ?  Is  Arnold's  theory  of  poetical  touch- 
stones of  practical  value  ?  What  is  the  ultimate  test  of  such 
'  touchstones  '  ?  See  Gurney's  Tertium  Quid,  and  Alfred  Austin, 
as  in  §  20. 

C.  DIVISION  OF  THE  SUBJECT.  —  On  the  relation  of  literature 
to  the  other  arts,  see  §§  7-9;  also  Boeckh,  Encykl.  d.  philol. 
Wiss.,  p.  468.  Boeckh,  as  already  shown  (§  15,  4,  above,  and 
further  discussed,  §  15,  5),  divides  literature  into  two  principal 
kinds,  poetry  and  prose,  and  these  respectively  into  epic, 
lyric,  drama,  and  historical,  philosophical,  and  rhetorical 
prose.  (See  his  Encykl.,  pp.  28,  144,  255,  648,  684,  743,  for  a 
learned  presentation  of  the  subject.)  For  other  opinions,  see 
Wackernagel,  Poetik,  Rhetorik,  und  Stylistik  ;  Elze,  Grundr. 
d.  engl.  Philol.,  pp.  233,  347-348,  who  discusses  Boeckh  and 
Wackernagel  ;  Korting,  Encykl.  d.  roman.  Philol.  i  :  74,  78  ; 
2  :  443-454  ;  Schmitz,  Encykl.  d.  neueren  Sprachen,  i  :  65-67  ; 
also,  Wordsworth,  Hegel,  Baumgart,  Gottschall,  M.  Arnold, 
and  T.-  Arnold. 


294  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

§   20.      REFERENCES. 

ALLEN,  GRANT.     Physiological  Aesthetics.     N.  Y.  :   1877. 

Chap.  II   Poetry. 
For  Allen's  point  of  view,  see  §  8. 

ARISTOTLE.     Poetics. 

For  editions,  see  Appendix.  A  trustworthy  and  inexpen- 
sive translation  (with  the  original)  is  Wharton's  (Parker  and 
Co.,  Oxford,  1883).  Professor  Bywater's  text  has  just  appeared, 
and  is  excellent.  The  commentary  is  promised  presently 
(Clarendon  Press,  Oxford).  Altogether  the  best  student's 
edition  is  Butcher's  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art 
(London  :  1895),  of  which  a  new  and  improved  edition  has 
recently  appeared.  In  Poetics,  1-5,  will  be  found  the  state- 
ments concerning  '  imitation  '  and  '  rhythm  '  in  poetry  which  have 
been  cruces  from  that  day  to  this.  The  student  is  referred  to 
the  examination  of  these  terms  made  in  §  9,  where  it  is  attempted 
to  show  that  Aristotle  did  not  mean  by  /u'/^o-ts  what  we  ordi- 
narily mean  by  copying.  It  is  sometimes  forgotten  that  in 
Poetics,  4 :  6,  Aristotle  calls  music  and  measure,  as  well  as 
imitation,  natural  to  man.  It  should  therefore  be  considered 
whether  it  is  not  in  this  association  of  /AI/A^O-IS  with  music  and 
rhythm  that  the  meaning  of  Aristotle's  theory  of  poetry  is  to 
be  sought.  Compare  with  the  passage  in  4:6  that  in  1:4, 
which  enumerates  rhythm,  language,  and  harmony  (music)  as 
the  means  of  imitation. 

The  following  questions  concerning  the  treatment  of  poetry 
in  general  will  arise:  whether  (in  3:  i)  the  division  of  poetry 
into  dramatic  narrative  (epic),  pure  narrative  (including  lyric), 
and  the  drama,  is  orderly  and  exhaustive ;  whether  Aristotle 
means  to  include  the  lyric  under  "  narration  where  the 
poet  retains  his  individuality";  where  in  this  classification 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  295 

other  literary  kinds  could  fall,  such  as  the  idyl,  the  metrical 
romance,  the  modern  novel,  the  elegy,  didactic  poetry  (De 
Rerum  Natura,  the  Georgics,  etc.),  philosophical  satire  (Horace, 
Juvenal,  Swift's  Voyage  to  the  Houyhnhnms,  etc.),  and  how 
this  classification  bears  comparison  with  others,  such  as  Words- 
worth's in  Preface  to  Poems  (1815),  —  narrative,  dramatic,  lyri- 
cal, idyllium,  didactic,  philosophical  satire.  (See  M.  Arnold's 
Essay  on  Wordsworth,  concerning  the  Greek  classification  of 
poetry.)  A  difficulty  presents  itself  (in  4  :  1—5)  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  "  two  causes  "  from  which  poetry  is  said  to 
spring, — whether  Wharton's  interpretation  is  correct,  (i)  the 
instinct  of  imitation,  (2)  the  delight  in  imitation  ;  or  Butcher's, 

(1)  the  instinct  of  imitation,  (2)  the  instinct  for  harmony  and 
rhythm  ;  or,  yet  again,  this  :  (i)  the  instinct  of  imitation  and 

(2)  the  desire  to  learn  (4:  4).     The  historical  descent  of  epic 
and  tragedy  on   the  one    hand,   from   the  imitation  of  noble 
actions  by  noble  poets,  and  of  satire  and  comedy  on  the  other, 
from  the  imitation  of  the   actions  of  meaner  persons  by  the 
more  trivial  poets  (4 :  7),  is  especially  noteworthy  when  con- 
sidered in  connection  with  the  implication  (5  :  3)  that  the  latter 
style  approaches  the  former  in  poetic  value  in  proportion  as 
it  generalizes  its  themes  and  plots.     The  study  of  poetic  truth 
(chaps.  IX  and  XXV)  involves  the  discussion  of  the  statement, 
"  Poetry,  therefore,  is  a  more  philosophical  and  a  higher  thing 
than  history  ;  for  poetry  tends  to  express  the  universal,  history 
the  particular "    (9 :  3).     It  will   be   necessary   to  distinguish 
between   probability,   possibility,  and    actuality ;   between   the 
world   of  imagination  and  the  world  of  experience  ;   between 
what  looks  like  chance  and  what  looks  like  necessity  ;  and  it 
will  be  noted  that  Aristotle  agrees  with  Bacon  that  the  poet 
must  be  a  maker  of  that  which  has  either  probable  or  necessary 
independence  and  unity  (9  :  9,  10).     On  the  subject  of  poetry 
and  the  errors  to  which  the  poet  is  liable,  see  chap.  XXV ;  on 
poetical  diction,  chaps.  XXI,  XXII. 


296  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

Compare  Bacon's  theory  of  poetry  in  the  Advancement  of 
Learning.  See  note  on  Masson's  Theories  of  Poetry,  and  con- 
sult in  general  notes  and  comments  in  the  edition  of  Pye, 
Twining,  Susemihl ;  Butcher  (Theory  of  Poetry,  chaps.  I-V,  XI) 
and  the  critical  studies  of  Aristotle's  Theory  of  Art  mentioned 
in  §  8,  especially  Doring,  Die  Kunstlehre  des  Aristoteles  (Jena  : 
1870)  ;  Teichmiiller,  Aristotelische  Forschungen  (Halle  :  1869)  ; 
Reinkens,  Aristoteles  Ueber  Kunst  (Wien  :  1870)  ;  and  E. 
Miiller's  Geschichte  der  Kunst  bei  den  Alten  (Breslau :  1834). 
Aristotle  on  the  Epic  will  be  discussed  in  §  32,  on  Tragedy, 
§§  37,  40-42,  46-48,  on  Comedy,  §§  49-51,  in  vol.  II  of  this 
work. 

ARNOLD,  M.     Essays  in  Criticism.     2d  Series.     Lond. :   1888. 
Pp.  1-55. 

The  Essays  on  Translating  Homer,  on  the  Study  of  Poetry, 
on  Wordsworth,  Byron,  and  Shelley,  have  stirred  up  a  contro- 
versy as  keen,  as  entertaining,  and  so  far  as  inconclusive,  as 
that  between  Bowles  and  Campbell  on  the  merits  of  Pope. 
Matthew  Arnold's  position  rests  upon  three  assumptions  :  first, 
that  poetry  is  at  bottom  a  criticism  of  life,  —  "  The  greatness  of 
a  poet  lies  in  his  powerful  and  beautiful  application  of  ideas  to 
life  —  to  the  question  :  How  to  live  "  (On  Translating  Homer)  ; 
second,  that  there  exist  generally  recognized  laws  of  poetic 
beauty  and  poetic  truth ;  third,  that  the  relative  greatness  of 
a  poet  depends  upon  the  soundness  of  his  criticism  and  the 
completeness  of  his  surrender  to  the  laws  of  poetic  beauty  and 
truth.  By  references  to  these  canons  of  criticism,  Arnold 
succeeds  in  placing  Wordsworth  above  Byron,  and  Byron  above 
Shelley.  It  may,  however,  be  questioned  whether  he  has 
distinguished  between  the  criticism  of  life  and  its  representa- 
tion ;  whether  he  has  demonstrated  the  universality  of  his  laws 
of  poetic  beauty  and  truth  ;  whether,  indeed,  he  has  anywhere 
logically  defined  the  beauty  and  truth  in  dispute  ;  and,  in  fine, 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  297 

whether  he  understands  criticism  always  in  the  same  sense. 
Compare,  for  instance,  the  uses  of  the  word  in  the  essay  on 
Wordsworth  and  in  the  essay  on  the  Function  of  Criticism. 
For  the  controversy  with  Austin  and  Swinburne,  see  under 
those  names  below. 

Arnold  defines  poetry  with  reference  to  its  form,  as  follows  : 
"  Poetry  is  simply  the  most  delightful  and  perfect  form  of  utter- 
ance that  human  words  can  reach.  Its  rhythm  and  measure, 
elevated  to  a  regularity,  certainty,  and  force  very  different  from 
that  of  the  rhythm  and  measure  which  can  pervade  prose,  are 
a  part  of  its  perfection  "  (The  French  Play  in  London). 

ARNOLD,  M.     The  Touchstones  of  Poetry.     Selected  from  the 
writings  of  Matthew  Arnold  and  John  Ruskin  ;  with  Intro- 
duction by  A.  S.  Cook.     San  Francisco  :   1887. 
Useful  for  those  who  have  not  access  to  the  originals,  namely, 
Arnold's  Last  Words  on   Translating  Homer,   and    Ruskin's 
Fiction,  Fair  and  Foul.     In  the  Introduction,  Professor  Cook 
points  out  Arnold's  indebtedness  to  Joubert.     His  main  indebt- 
edness is,  however,  to  Wordsworth  and  Goethe.     The  aesthetic 
principle  underlying  the  touchstones  quoted  by  Arnold  is  not 
discussed   by   Professor  Cook.     It  would   appear   to   be   the 
rhythmical  expression  of  the  significant  as  presented  by  the 
synthesis  of  antithetical  manifestations. 

AUSTIN,  ALFRED.     The  Human  Tragedy.     Rev.  ed.     Lond. : 
1889. 

Introduction,  pp.  i-xlii. 
AUSTIN,  ALFRED.     Prince  Lucifer.     2d  ed.     Lond.:  1887. 

Introduction,  pp.  vii-xxi. 

AUSTIN,   ALFRED.     Contemp.  40:884;  41:  124  Old  and  New 

Canons  of  Criticism  of  Poetry. 

The  article  introductory  to  Prince  Lucifer,  on  the  End  and 
Limits  of  Objective  Poetry,  is  rather  a  defense  of  that  tragedy 


298  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

than  a  discussion  of  the  subject  announced.  The  author  asserts 
with  force  the  poet's  right  to  use  "  moral  perplexity "  as  an 
agent  or  cause  for  the  '  epic  '  drama,  although  he  may  desire 
to  solve  no  moral  problem,  to  settle  no  spiritual  controversy. 
Such  agnosticism  cannot  pass  unchallenged ;  for  those  who 
have  best  accomplished  the  aesthetic  purpose  of  poetry  have 
best  understood  the  ethical  relations  of  the  subject  that  they 
treat. 

In  the  articles  on  the  Canons  of  Poetical  Criticism  (Contemp. 
!?&>.),  Austin  combats  Arnold's  definition  of  poetry.  The 
reader  cannot  but  suspect  Austin  of  putting  too  restricted  an 
interpretation  upon  Arnold's  criticism  of  life.  Can  there  be, 
as  Austin  says,  "no  consensus  about  the  criticism  of  life"? 
And  is  it  true  that  the  more  a  critic  the  poet  is,  the  more  he 
injures  his  poetry  ?  On  the  other  hand,  even  if  Arnold's  defini- 
tion be  inadequate,  does  it  follow  that  Austin's  is  satisfac- 
tory ?  See  his  article  on  the  Position  and  Prospects  of  Poetry, 
Introduction  to  the  Human  Tragedy,  p.  xxii  :  "  Poetry  is  a 
transfiguration  of  life  ;  in  other  words,  an  imaginative  repre- 
sentation of  whatever  men  perceive,  feel,  think,  or  do."  Or 
again  :  "  Poetry,  which  is  a  glorified  representation  of  all  that  is 
seen,  felt,  thought,  or  done,  by  man,  perforce  includes  Religion 
and  'Philosophy  among  the  materials  reflected  in  its  magic 
mirror.  But  it  has  no  mission  to  replace  them ;  its  function 
being  not  to  supersede,  but  to  transfigure." 

Does  this  definition  find  room  for  subjective  presentations 
such  as  the  Divine  Comedy  and  Rossetti's  Blessed  Damosel  ? 
Is  every  imaginative  representation,  even  though  in  words, 
poetry  ;  for  instance  Gulliver's  Travels,  Bowles's  Spirit  of  Dis- 
covery, Dr.  Syntax  in  Search  of  the  Picturesque  ?  Does  the 
definition  indicate  the  relation  of  thought  to  expression  ? 

In  the  Introduction  to  the  Human  Tragedy  the  discussion  of 
the  novel  and  the  narrative  poem  leads  the  author  to  an  interest- 
ing forecast  of  the  course  of  poetry.  For  the  condensed  state- 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  299 

ment  of  Mr.  Austin's  canons,  see  Contemp.  41  :  135,  138.  As 
tested  by  these  canons,  Byron  comes  first,  Wordsworth  second, 
Shelley  third. 

BACON,  FRANCIS.     Works.     Ed.  by  Spedding  and  others.     15 
vols.     N.  Y.  :   1869. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  186-188,  220-226 ;  vol.  IV,  pp.  225-232  ;  vol.  VI, 
pp.  182,  183,  202-206,  337,  418,419;  vol.  VII,  pp.  285-287; 
vol.  VIII,  pp.  407-409,  439-444;  vol.  IX,  p.  220  ;  vol.  X, 
pp.  403-405- 

As  in  the  case  of  Aristotle,  one  cannot  expect  to  understand 
Bacon's  exposition  of  poetry  out  of  relation  to  his  tenets 
touching  art.  See  Professor  Masson's  Essays  below,  and 
Kuno  Fischer's  Francis  Bacon  und  seine  Nachfolger  (2.  Aufl. 
Leipz.  :  1875.  pp.  269-283  Bacon's  Poetik).  See  also  §  21,  B  2. 

BAGEHOT,  W.     Literary  Studies.     2  vols.     Lond. :   1879. 

In  his  articles  on  the  First  Edinburgh  Reviewers  (vol.  I, 
p.  27),  Bagehot  places  in  sharp  contrast  the  analytic  under- 
standing of  Jeffrey,  and  the  mysticism,  the  religious  imagination, 
of  Wordsworth.  Finding  a  mythical  element  in  religion  as  in 
art,  he  naturally  adopts  the  Wordsworthian  side  of  the  contro- 
versy. The  attack  upon  the  Whig  critic  is  resumed  with  effect 
in  the  paper  (vol.  II,  p.  338)  on  Wordsworth,  Tennyson,  and 
Browning.  Here  will  be  found  the  striking  analogy  of  the 
picturesque  and  the  '  literatesque.'  The  assertion  that  the 
poet's  business  is  with  types,  and  that  those  types  are  mirrored 
in  reality,  should  be  compared  with  the  similar  theories  of 
Schopenhauer,  Hegel,  and  Plato.  While  the  division  of  poetry 
into  the  pure,  the  ornate,  and  the  grotesque,  is  plausible,  it 
may  be  questioned  whether  it  cover  all  stages  of  the  art.  The 
remarks  (2  :  351)  on  rhythm  in  verse  and  in  prose  are  of  weight. 

BAIN,  A.     On  Teaching  English,  with  ...  an  Inquiry  into'the 
Definition  of  Poetry.     Lond. :   1887. 
Pp.  207-256. 


300  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

After  discussing  inadequate  methods  of  defining  poetry,  the 
author  passes  in  review  the  definitions  of  Aristotle,  Bacon, 
Wordsworth,  Arnold,  Austin,  etc.,  and  advances  to  moot  points 
of  criticism,  such  as  the  function  of  language,  the  relation  of 
poetry  to  science,  to  oratory,  to  morality,  the  choice  of  subjects, 
and  the  ideal  in  poetry.  He  emphasizes  the  aesthetic  aim 
and  effect  of  poetry,  and  would,  in  that  respect,  appear  to 
sympathize  with  Austin  rather  than  with  Matthew  Arnold. 
The  work  is  a  useful  discussion  of  the  question,  Is  Poetry 
'  imitative,'  or  is  it  '  effusive  ?  '  According  to  Bain,  poetry 
neither  interprets  nor  penetrates  the  natural,  but  assimilates 
it  with  some  aspect  of  humanity.  The  definition  on  p.  257, 
"  Poetry  is  a  fine  art,  operating  by  means  of  thought  conveyed 
in  language,"  requires  for  its  interpretation  a  definition  of  fine 
art,  and  for  its  validity,  a  theory  of  the  relation  of  rhythmical 
language  to  aesthetic  thought. 

BATTEUX,  L'ABB£  CHARLES.  Des  quatre  poetiques  d'Aristote, 
d' Horace,  de  Vida,  et  de  Despreaux.  2  vols.  Paris  : 
1771. 

See  §  21,  B  4,  below  for  a  list  of  the  other  French  poetics 
of  the  century. 

BAUMGART,  H.     Handbuch  der  Poetik.     Stuttg.  :   1887. 

One  of  the  most  learned,  trustworthy,  and  exhaustive  of  the 
recent  contributions  to  the  science.  It  should  have  a  place  in 
the  library  of  every  critic.  " 

BAYNE,  PETER.  Two  Great  Englishwomen  .  .  .  with  an  Essay 
on  Poetry.  Lond.:  1881. 

Pp.  i-lxxviii. 

As  the  author's  object  is  to  make  a  definition  of  poetry  that 
will  give  Mrs.  Browning  the  highest  claim  to  consideration,  he 
immediately  falls  foul  of  Mr.  Arnold's  criticism  of  life.  Lyric 
poetry  is  for  Mr.  Bayne  "  the  essential  poetry." 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  301 

BENARD,  CH.     Hegel  :  La  poe'tique,  prece'de'e  d'une  preface  et 

suivie  d'un  examen  critique.  2  vols.  Paris  :  1855. 
The  most  important,  indeed  the  only  special,  edition  of 
Hegel's  Die  Poesie.  In  addition  to  the  admirable  commentary 
on  Hegel,  the  author  gives  a  selection  of  the  most  important 
passages  on  poetry  to  be  found  in  Schiller,  Goethe,  Richter, 
and  others. 

BIEDERMANN,  WOLDEMAR  VON.  Zeitschrift  f.  vcrgl.  Littera- 
turgeschichte,  2  :  415  Zur  vergleichenden  Geschichte  der 
poetischen  Formen. 

An  interesting  study  of  primitive  forms.  The  author  makes 
use  of  the  material  gathered  by  the  folklorists  and  the  anthro- 
pologists. 

BODMER,  JOHANN  JAKOB.     Vom  Wundcrbaren  in    der  Poesie. 
Zurich:   1740. 
See  §  21,  B  3. 

BODMER,  JOHANN  JAKOB.     Betrachtung  ueber  die   poetischen 
Gemahlde   der  Dichter.      Mit   einer   Vorrede  von   J.    J. 
Breitinger.     Zurich  :  1741. 
See  §  21,  B  3. 

BOILEAU,  DESPR^AUX  N.  L'Art  poetique.  (Pp.  91-109  of  his 
Oeuvres  Completes.  Publ.  par  P.  Cheron.  Paris:  1875. 
Pp.  188-220  of  the  edition  by  M.  Amar.  Paris:  1851.) 

For  reprint  with  translation  by  Soame,  see  Cook's  Art  of 
Poetry ;  see  also,  Batteux,  Les  quatres  poetiques.  Consult 
below,  §  21,  ^  4>  on  Boileau,  and  read  O.  Wichmann,  L'Art 
Poe'tique  de  Boileau  dans  celui  de  Gottsched  (Berlin  :  1879). 

BOSANQUET,  B.     History  of  Aesthetic. 

After  a  discussion  of  Ruskin's  penetrative  imagination,  the 
author  offers  (pp.  460-462)  an  answer  to  the  question,  What  is 


302  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

the  material  of  poetry  ?  In  its  full  development,  poetry,  he 
decides,  unquestionably  demands  metre.  As  distinguished 
from  the  other  arts,  its  material  is  metrical  or  rhythmical 
language,  and  always  a  particular  language.  Bosanquet  thus 
differs  with  those  who  hold  imagination  to  be  the  mate- 
rial of  poetry,  though  he  looks  upon  the  penetrative  imagina- 
tion, with  its  attendant  depth  of  ideal  feeling,  as  necessary 
to  complete  his  definition.  Poetical  prose,  so  called,  he  would 
regard  as  rhetoric,  "  a  thing  scarcely  compatible  with  poetical 
quality." 

BOURGET,  P.     fitudes  et  portraits.     2  vols.     Paris  :   1889. 

Vol.  I,  p.  189  Science  et  poesie  ;  p.  329  L'Emploi  des  vers  au 
theatre. 

BREITINGER,  JOHANN  JAKOB.     Kritische  Dichtkunst.     2  vols. 
Zurich  :   1740. 

See  §  21,  B  3. 
BRIMLEY,  GEO.     Essays.     Lond.  :   1882. 

Pp.  184-203  Poetry  and  Criticism. 

An  inquiry  into  the  fundamental  properties  of  poetry.  Brimley 
was  one  of  the  earliest  to  prophesy  the  future  greatness  of 
Tennyson. 

BROWN,  JOHN.     Spare    Hours.     New   ed.     3    vols.     Boston  : 
1892. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  313-352  On  Vaughan's  Poetry. 

The  doctor  opens  with  a  witty  page-and-a-half  recapitulation 
of  great  critics,  disagrees  with  all,  and  develops  a  genial  theory 
of  his  own. 

BROWNING,  ROBERT.     On  the  Poet  Objective  and  Subjective 
...  on  Shelley  as  Man  and  Poet.     2d  ed.     (Browning 
Soc.  Papers,  No.  i.)     Lond.  :   1881. 
About  1851  certain  letters  of  Shelley —  afterwards  shown  to 

be  spurious — were  published  by  Moxon,  with  an  introductory 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  303 

essay  by  Browning.  This  essay  is  republished  with  notes  and 
headings  by  Mr.  F.  J.  Furnivall.  As  Mr.  Furnivall  says,  it 
makes  no  difference  whether  the  Shelley  letters  were  genuine 
or  not  —  we  are  indebted  to  them  for  an  admirable  formulation 
of  Browning's  poetic  creed.  The  distinction  made  between 
the  objective  poet  —  the  fashioner — and  the  subjective  poet 
—  the  seer — leads  (p.  6)  to  an  exposition  of  the  aim  of  the 
latter  :  '  Not  what  man  sees,  but  what  God  sees  —  the  Ideas  of 
Plato,  seeds  of  creation  lying  burningly  on  the  Divine  Hand,  it 
is  toward  these  that  he  struggles.'  The  remarks  on  the  rela- 
tion of  the  poet's  life  (p.  10)  and  of  his  moral  purpose  (p.  9) 
to  his  work  are  direct  and  sound.  The  subjective-objective 
sfyle  of  poetry  forecast  by  the  youthful  Browning  has  found  its 
best  illustration  in  his  own  dramatic  monologues.  Carlyle  and 
Landor  take  the  same  view  as  Browning  of  poetry  :  the 
expression  of  ideas  impressed  on  man's  mind  by  the  Creator. 

BRYANT,    W.    C.      Prose   Writings.      Ed.  by   Parke  Godwin. 
2  vols.     N.  Y.  :   1884. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  3-44  Lectures  on  Poetry  ;  pp.  57-67  On  Trisyllabic  Feet 
in   Iambic  Measure;    pp.  147-160    Poets   and   Poetry  of   the 

English  Language. 

The  Romantic  conception  of  poetry.  It  is  a  suggestive 
rather  than  an  imitative  art,  employing  purely  arbitrary  sym- 
bols instead  of  visible  or  tangible  representation.  The  elements 
of  poetry  lie  in  natural  objects  and  in  the  experiences,  emotions, 
and  relations  of  human  life. 

BUCHANAN,  R.     A   Poet's   Sketch-Book :    Selections  from  the 
prose  writings  of  Robert  Buchanan.     Lond.  :   1883. 

In  the  essay  on  the  Poet  or  Seer  (pp.  3-31)  we  find  a  char- 
acterization of  the  poet  which  is  excellent  as  far  as  it  goes. 
The  poet  is  he  who  sees  life  newly,  assimilates  it  emotionally, 
and  contrives  to  utter  it  musically.  (See  also  David  Gray  and 
Other  Essays  on  Poetry.  Lond.  :  1868.  Pp.  3-60.) 


304  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  20- 

BURKE,  EDMUND.     Essay  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful.  Lond.  : 
1821. 

Poetry  cannot  be  called  an  art  of  imitation,  save  in  so  far  as 
it  describes  the  manners  and  passions  of  men  in  the  language 
which  directly  expresses  them.  But  even  descriptive  poetry  is 
not  strictly  imitative,  for  it  operates  chiefly  by  substitution,  by 
means  of  sounds  which  through  custom  have  come  to  produce 
the  effects  that  result  from  the  reality. 

(See  §§  8  and  21,  B  2.  A  cheap  edition  of  the  Essay  may 
be  found  in  Cassell's  National  Library,  N.  Y.) 

BUTCHER,  S.  H.     Aristotle's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Art. 
Lond. :   1895. 

This  volume  is  a  revision  and  an  enlargement  of  the  author's 
Some  Aspects  of  the  Greek  Genius  (see  §  9).  It  contains  a 
list  of  editions,  translations,  and  commentaries  on  the  Poet- 
ics of  Aristotle,  an  analysis  of  that  treatise,  the  Greek  text 
with  an  admirable  translation  into  English,  and  an  essay  on 
the  theory  of  poetry  there  presented.  The  author  reads  the 
Poetics  in  the  light  of  Aristotle's  other  writings,  connects  the 
theory  of  art  with  the  Aristotelian  philosophy  as  a  whole,  and 
gives  the  vital  term  '  imitation '  its  full  aesthetic  content.  He 
holds,  undoubtedly  with  good  reason,  that  the  clue  to  Aristotle's 
theory  is  to  be  found  in  the  conception  that  poetry  is  an  expres- 
sion of  the  universal  element  in  human  life.  The  chapters 
on  the  theory  of  tragedy  contain  material  not  included  in  the 
author's  earlier  work.  The  chapters  on  Art,  Nature,  '  Imita- 
tion '  as  an  Aesthetic  Term,  Poetic  Truth,  The  End  of  Fine 
Art,  Art  and  Morality,  the  Generalizing  Power  of  Comedy,  and 
Poetic  Universality  in  Greek  Literature,  are  of  prime  importance 
to  the  student  of  the  poetic  principle.  It  may  unhesitatingly 
be  asserted  that  this  is  the  best  critical  edition  of  Aristotle's 
Poetics  for  English  workers.  It  is  a  hundred  years  later  than 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  305 

Tyrwhitt's,  and  gathers  up  all  that  is  best  in  the  Aristotelian 
criticism  of  the  hundred  years. 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS.  Heroes  and  Hero-Worship  (Lect.  3  The 
Hero  as  Poet ;  Lect.  5  The  Hero  as  Man  of  Letters).  N.  Y. : 
1846. 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS.  Critical  and  Miscellaneous  Essays.  4  vols. 
Lond.  :  1857. 

Vol.  I  Richter,  State  of  German  Literature,  Goethe,  Burns,  Vol- 
taire, and  Signs  of  the  Times;  Vol.  II  Novalis,  History, 
Richter,  Schiller,  Early  German  Literature,  Historic  Survey  of 
German  Poetry,  Biography;  Vol.  Ill  Goethe's  Works,  Diderot, 
Sir  Walter  Scott. 

CARLYLE,  THOMAS.  Lectures  on  the  History  of  Literature. 
Lond.  :  1892. 

As  a  teacher  of  the  philosophical  in  poetry  and  criticism, 
Carlyle  is  one  of  the  most  important  figures  of  the  century. 
His  own  masters  were  Kant,  Fichte,  Jean  Paul,  and  Goethe. 
For  his  position  in  English  poetics,  see  §  21,  B  2. 

CARRIERE,    M.      Das   Wesen   und   die    Formen   der   Poesie. 

Leipz.  :  1854. 

See  §8. 
COLERIDGE,  S.  T.     Complete  Works.     Ed.  by  W.  G.  T.  Shedd. 

7  vols.     N.  Y.  :  1853-54. 

Vol.  Ill  Biographia  Literaria,  chaps.  Ill,  IV,  X-XXII ;  vol.  IV, 
pp.  19-22  Definition  of  Poetry,  pp.  22-46  Drama,  pp.  275-285 
The  Ludicrous,  pp.  328-336  Poesy  as  Art,  pp.  337-343  Style, 
pp.  368-370  Taste,  pp.  370-373  Beauty,  pp.  387,  388  Wonderful- 
ness  of  Prose;  vol.  VI,  p.  433  (Table  Talk)  Meaning  and 
Music  in  Poetry. 

COLERIDGE,  S.  T.  Literary  Remains.  Ed.  by  H.  N.  Coleridge. 
4  vols.  Lond.  :  1836-39. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  7-12  Definition  of  Poetry,  pp.  12-53  Drama,  pp.  372, 
373  Wonderfulness  of  Prose  ;  vol.  IV,  p.  20  Shakespeare,  etc. 


306  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

"  Poetry,  or  rather  a  poem,  is  a  species  of  composition  opposed 
to  science,  as  having  intellectual  pleasure  for  its  object  and  as 
attaining  its  end  by  the  use  of  language  natural  to  us  in  a  state 
of  excitement,  but  distinguished  from  other  species  of  compo- 
sition, not  excluded  by  the  former  criterion,  by  permitting  a 
pleasure  from  the  whole  consistent  with  a  consciousness  of  pleas- 
ure from  the  component  parts;  — and  the  perfection  of  which 
is  to  communicate  from  each  part  the  greatest  immediate 
pleasure  compatible  with  the  largest  sum  of  pleasure  on  the 
whole." 

The  influence  of  Coleridge  upon  English  poetics  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  is  incalculable  ;  not  only  because  of  his  attempt 
to  base  criticism  upon  aesthetic  principles,  but  because  of  his 
liberal  eclecticism,  which  has  taught  his  countrymen  to  lay 
under  contribution  the  critical  philosophy  of  Germany  while 
holding  to  what  is  best  in  mediaeval  and  ancient  thought.  For 
the  indebtedness  of  Coleridge  to  the  German  romanticists  and 
philosophers,  to  Kant,  Schelling,  Schiller,  Richter,  Lessing,  see 
Brandl's  Coleridge  ;  for  his  indebtedness  to  the  Neoplatonists 
and  to  Plato,  to  the  Mystics  and  to  Spinoza,  see  the  Biographia 
Literaria,  Table  Talks,  the  Friend,  passim.  Miss  Wylie's 
Evolution  of  English  Criticism  contains  a  good  study  of  the 
sources  of  Coleridge's  criticism.  The  student  may  look  for  a 
valuable  discussion  of  Coleridge's  critical  principles  in  Professor 
J.  M.  Hart's  forthcoming  Selections  from  Coleridge  (Athenaeum 
Press  Series,  Boston). 

COLVIN,  S.     'The  Fine  Arts.'     (In  Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed.) 

A  broad  and  able  discussion  of  poetry  —  which,  as  an  imita- 
tive art,  is  said  to  represent  by  means  of  verbal  signs,  arranged 
with  musical  regularity,  everything  for  which  verbal  signs  have 
been  invented. 

COTTERILL,  H.  B.     An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Poetry. 
Lond. :   1882. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  307 

A  series  of  University  Extension  Lectures,  simple  in  manner 
and  suggestive.  Adopting  the  realistic  principles,  the  author 
bases  his  argument  upon  Plato,  but  can  hardly  be  said  to  grasp 
Plato's  conclusions  concerning  art  and  poetry.  The  chapters  on 
Art  Creation,  The  Classical  School,  and  Wordsworth,  will  be  of 
service  to  the  beginner. 

COURTHOPE,  W.  J.     The  Liberal  Movement  in  English  Litera- 
ture.    Lond. :   1885. 

Pp.  3-32  Definition  of  Poetry,  pp.  71-108  Wordsworth's  Theory 
of  Poetry,  pp.  197-240  Prospects  of  Poetry. 

This  work  is  valuable,  even  though  its  judgments  are  not 
always  trustworthy.  Mr.  Courthope  disavows  all  intention  of 
prejudicing  his  argument  by  the  use  of  political  terms,  but  his 
treatment  of  the  romantic  movement  shows  that  conservatism, 
whether  political  or  literary,  means  all  that  is  desirable  in  civili- 
zation. Consequently,  although  he  indicates  in  his  Introduc- 
tory Chapter,  pp.  3-32,  the  weak  point  in  Bowles's  axioms  of 
poetry,  he  fails  to  appreciate  the  general  soundness  of  that 
poet's  criticism  upon  Pope  and  the  Classical  School.  The 
poetic  theories  of  Arnold  and  Swinburne  are  criticised  with 
apparent  candor,  but  are  disposed  of  in  such  a  way  as  to  show 
that  the  author  understands  neither  of  them.  Macaulay's 
dictum  concerning  the  decline  of  poetry  is  adopted  on  altogether 
insufficient  historical  proof  ;  and  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetry 
is  deliberately  misstated*  It  is  hard  to  see  that  Mr.  Courthope 
recognizes  any  genuine  standard  of  poetic  excellence.  His 
apparently  simple  definition  of  poetry  (pp.  30,  31),  'the  art  of 
producing  pleasure  by  the  just  expression  of  imaginative  thought 
and  feeling  in  metrical  language,'  is  invalidated  by  a  dualistic 
conception  of  the  relation  of  idea  to  form.  (Cf.  his  essay  in 
Nineteenth  Century,  41  =270  Life  in  Poetry  :  Poetical  Expres- 
sion.) The  chapter  on  the  Prospects  of  Poetry  is,  like  the  rest 
of  the  book,  eminently  readable,  but  indicative  of  the  author's 


308  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

inability  to  see  two  sides  of  a  question.  The  romantic  move- 
ment is  in  his  opinion  an  aberration  —  an  obsession  —  of 
poetry. 

The  author's  History  of  English  Poetry,  now  appearing,  will 
afford  him  scope  for  illustration  of  these  peculiarities. 

DALLAS,  E.  S.  Poetics;  an  Essay  on  Poetry.  Lond.  :  1852. 
DALLAS,  E.  S.  The  Gay  Science.  2  vols.  Lond.  :  1866. 

The  Gay  Science  of  the  Troubadours  was  poetry  ;  of  Mr. 
Dallas,  it  is  criticism.  For,  holding  with  the  Troubadours  that 
the  aim  of  poetry,  as  of  all  art,  is  pleasure,  he  makes  criticism 
the  science  of  the  laws  under  which  pleasure  is  produced.  He 
discusses  skilfully,  though  sometimes  inconclusively,  the  more 
notable  theories  of  poetry.  His  quest  for  the  fundamental 
unity  of  art  is  scientific  in  intention,  but  is  vitiated  by  a  mis- 
construction of  Aristotle's  theory  of  imitation,  and  a  radical 
misapprehension  of  Hegel's  theory  of  manifestation  ('Art  is 
the  manifestation  of  the  Beautiful ').  It  may  be  questioned 
whether  Mr.  Dallas  does  not  also  confound  the  aim  of  poetry 
with  its  nature.  In  vol.  I  the  chapters  on  the  Hidden  Soul, 
The  Play  of  Thought,  and  The  Secrecy  of  Art,  are  decidedly 
suggestive.  They  anticipate  in  a  popular  way  a  theory  of  art 
which  is  now  being  worked  out  scientifically  by  certain  of  the 
physiological  psychologists.  His  theory  of  the  unconscious 
pleasure  evoked  by  art  requires  to  be  tested  by  a  larger  selec- 
tion from  poetry  than  that  adduced  to  confirm  the  argument. 
According  to  him,  poetry  is  the  imaginative,  harmonious,  and 
unconscious  activity  of  the  soul ;  the  art  of  giving  imaginative 
pleasure.  Vol.  II,  chaps.  XIII  and  XIV,  and  passages  in  the 
section  on  the  Pursuit  of  Pleasure  and  the  World  of  Fiction 
display  to  advantage  the  author's  rich  and  entertaining  style. 
He  asserts  that  in  poetry  a  synthetic  reproduction  of  truth  is 
subsumed  under  the  category  of  poetic  imagination.  He  holds, 
therefore,  to  the  Baconian  theory. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  309 

Many  of  these  theories  will  be  found  in  Mr.  Dallas's  shorter 
and  earlier  works  on  Poetics,  Masson's  review  of  which  will  be 
found  in  No.  Brit.  Rev.  19  :  297  Theories  of  Poetry,  and  in  his 
Essays,  as  below. 

DAVIDSON,  JAS.  W.     The  Poetry  of  the  Future.     N.  Y.  :   1888. 

"  Aims  to  show  that  the  one  essential  characteristic  of  verse 
—  the  language  of  poetry  —  in  English  is  rhythm." 

DE   VERE,   AUBREY.      Essays,    chiefly    Literary   and    Ethical. 
Lond.  :   1889. 

P.  10  Definition  of  Poetry. 

DE  VERE,  AUBREY.     Essays,  chiefly  on  Poetry.    2  vols.    Lond.  : 
1887. 

"  Poetry  has  ever  recognized  these  two  great  offices,  distinct 
though  allied,  —  the  one,  that  of  representing  the  actual  world  ; 
the  other,  that  of  creating  an  ideal  region,  into  which  spirits 
whom  this  world  has  wearied  may  retire.  ...  A  perfect  poet 
ought  to  discharge  both  these  great  offices  of  poetry  "  (Two 
Schools  of  Poetry).  De  Vere  is,  in  creation  and  criticism,  an 
ardent  admirer  and  follower  of  Wordsworth. 

DEWEY,  JOHN.     Andover  Ren.  16  :  92  Poetry  and  Philosophy. 

A  comparison  of  Arnold  and  Browning.  The  author's  thesis 
is  that  the  best  poetry  is  that  which  is  informed  by  the  soundest 
philosophy. 

DIXON,  WM.  M.     English    Poetry  from    Blake   to   Browning. 
Lond.:   1894. 

Pp.  1-25  Poetry  and  its  Relation  to  Life. 

The  substance  of  the  author's  definition  (p.  6)  is  as  follows  : 
Poetry  is  impassioned  language,  appropriate  to  higher  moods 
("  intenser  spiritual  life  than  the  one  in  which  we  hourly 
move  "),  ordered  or  marshaled  in  a  rhythmically  effective  way. 


310  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  20. 

DRYDEN,  J.  Works.  Ed.  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  18  vols. 
Lond.  :  1808.  (Revised  and  corrected  by  Geo.  Saints- 
bury.  Edinb.  and  Lond.:  1882-92.) 

Revised  Edition,  vol.  II,  p.  291  Defense  of  an  Essay  of  Dramatic 
Poesy;  vol.  IV,  pp.  18-30,  pp.  225-247  Defense  of  the  Epilogue, 
or  an  Essay  on  the  Dramatic  Poetry  of  the  Last  Age  ;  vol.  V, 
pp.  111-124  Preface  to  the  State  of  Innocence;  the  Author's 
Apology  for  Heroic  Poetry  and  Poetic  License ;  vol.  XV,  pp.  283- 
377  An  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy  (the  author's  earliest  theories, 
1668;  2d  ed.  and  revision,  1684;  3d  ed.  1693);  pp.  378-392 
Heads  of  an  Answer  to  Rymer's  Remarks  on  the  Tragedies  of 
the  Last  Age  ;  vol.  XVII,  pp.  289-335  A  Parallel  of  Poetry 
and  Painting  (Preface  to  Trans,  of  Du  Fresnoy's  Art  of 
Painting). 

The  critical  training  of  Dryden  conspired  with  his  broad 
literary  sympathy  and  his  natural  aversion  to  conventional 
dogma  to  make  him  the  most  prominent  figure  in  English 
poetics  between  Ben  Jonson  and  Coleridge.  The  articles  of 
his  literary  belief  are  simple  and  easily  stated  ;  and,  save  for 
the  didactic  element  natural  to  his  '  milieu,'  they  will  find  general 
acceptance  to-day.  Poetry,  he  says,  is  not  a  copy,  but  a  lively 
imitation  of  nature  ;  its  field  is  as  broad  as  human  life ;  the 
final  test  of  its  "excellence  is  its  fidelity  to  that  which  is  essen- 
tial in  nature  and  in  life.  Its  end  is  to  teach  man  by  way  of 
pleasing  him.  In  other  words,  instruction  is  the  final  cause  ; 
delight,  the  efficient.  The  means  available  to  this  end  are 
knowledge  of  nature,  justness  of  imitation, '  equality  '  of  thought, 
propriety  of  expression,  and  sweetness  of  numbers. 

His  opinions  concerning  dramatic  theory  and  construction, 
prosody,  refinement  of  language,  poetic  standards,  ancient  and 
modern,  the  comparative  excellence  of  authors  and  of  literary 
kinds,  and  the  relations  of  criticism  to  creation,  are  discussed 
in  the  following  prefaces,  prologues  and  epilogues,  epistles  and 
dedications:  vol.  Ill  Preface  to  An  Evening's  Love  (on 
Comedy)  ;  vol.  II  Dedication  of  the  Rival  Ladies  (on  blank 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  311 

verse  and  rhyme) ;  vol.  V  Dedication  of  Aurung-Zebe  (on 
heroic  characters  in  tragedy),  Preface  to  All  for  Love  (a  justi- 
fication of  Dryden's  conception  of  tragedy  as  compared  with 
the  conceptions  entertained  by  the  ancients  and  by  the  French 
School)  ;  vol.  VI  Preface  to  Oedipus  (comparison  of  ancient 
and  modern  tragedy),  Preface  to  Troilus  and  Cressida  (criticism 
of  Shakespeare,  the  imitation  of  our  English  dramatists,  the 
grounds  of  criticism  in  tragedy),  Dedication  to  the  Spanish 
Friar  (on  the  dovetailing  of  plots  in  tragi-comedy  and  on  the 
dignity  of  poetic  style)  ;  vol.  VII  Preface  to  Albion  and  Albanius 
(on  the  history  and  theory  of  the  opera),  Preface  to  Don 
Sebastian  (the  length  of  a  play,  the  relation  of  poetry  to  history, 
the  three  unities)  ;  vol.  VIII  Dedication  of  Love  Triumphant 
(on  the  undue  observance  of  Ancient  canons  of  the  drama)  ;  vol. 
X  Prologues  and  Epilogues  (touching,  in  many  cases,  on  literary 
fashions  of  the  day);  vol.  XI  The  Epistles  —  especially  those 
to  Lee,  Roscommon,  Congreve,  and  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller ;  vol. 
XII  Preface  to  Trans,  of  Ovid's  Epistles  (three  ways  of  trans- 
lation :  metaphrase,  paraphrase,  and  imitation  ;  the  second  is 
preferred  by  Dryden),  Dedication  prefixed  to  Trans,  from 
Ovid's  Metamorphoses  (an  attack  upon  critics  in  general,  upon 
the  critics  of  Dryden's  time,  and  Rymer  in  particular :  "  the 
corruption  of  a  poet  is  the  generation  of  a  critic,"  and  a 
defense  of  modern  drama  [British]  as  against  the  ancient),  the 
Preface  on  Translation  prefixed  to  Dryden's  Second  Miscellany 
(1685,  the  appreciation  of  ancient  poets,  Theocritus,  Lucre- 
tius, Horace,  and  Homer,  and  of  their  translators)  ;  vol.  XIII 
Essay  on  Satire,  Dedication  of  the  Pastorals,  and  the  Preface 
to  them  (the  latter  contains  rules  of  the  pastoral)  ;  vol.  XIV 
Dedication  of  the  Trans,  of  the  Aeneis  ("  The  heroic  poem 
is  the  greatest  work  which  the  soul  of  man  is  capable  to 
perform  "). 

For  further  notice  of  Dryden,  see  §  21,  B  2. 


312  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  20. 

EMERSON,  R.  W.     Complete  Works. 

Vol.  Ill  Essays,  2d  Series,  pp.  9-45  The  Poet ;  vol.  VIII  Letters 
and  Social  Aims,  pp.  9-75  Poetry  and  Imagination. 

In  the  last  of  these  essays  poetry  is  described  as  "  the  only 
verity  —  the  expression  of  a  sound  mind  speaking  after  the 
ideal,  and  not  after  the  apparent."  "It  is  the  perpetual 
endeavor  to  express  the  spirit  of  the  thing,  to  pass  the  brute 
body  and  search  the  life  and  reason  which  causes  it  to  exist,  to 
see  that  the  object  is  always  flowing  away  whilst  the  spirit  or 
necessity  which  causes  it  subsists."  The  essential  mark,  or, 
as  Matthew  Arnold  would  say,  accent  of  poetry  is  the  activity 
of  mind  betrayed  in  every  word,  "  shown  in  new  uses  of  every 
fact  and  image,  in  preternatural,  quickness  or  perception  of 
relations."  Again,  "  it  is  a  presence  of  mind  that  gives  a 
miraculous  command  of  all  means  of  uttering  the  thought  and 
feeling  of  the  moment."  Still  again,  "  poetry  is  the  piety  of 
intellect."  Its  value  is  to  educate  us  to  a  height  which  it  can 
itself  but  rarely  attain,  the  subjugation  of  mankind  to  order 
and  virtue.  It  will  be  noticed  that  penetrating  as  these  remarks 
are,  and  eminently  true  of  the  idealistic  character  and  aim  of 
art,  they  do  not  attempt  to  distinguish  poetry  from  the  other 
arts  save  by  the  incidental  mention  of  words  and  images  as  its 
material,  and  of  morality  as  the  test  of  its  value.  In  Emerson's 
theory  of  the  imagination  the  student  will  detect  the  continual 
influence  of  Plotinus  and  the  symbolists. 

ENGEL,  J.  J.  Anfangsgriinde  einer  Theorie  der  Dichtungsarten 
aus  deutschen  Meistern  entwickelt.  1783.  (Schriften. 
Berlin  :  1801-06.  Vol.  XI,  p.  25  ff.) 

EVERETT,  C.  C.     Poetry,  Comedy,  and  Duty. 

An  excellent  introduction  to  the  analytic  study  of  poetry,  and 
especially  to  German  thought  upon  the  subject,  is  afforded  by 
the  first  lecture  of  this  work  (pp.  1-155),  which  treats  of  the 
Imagination,  the  philosophy  of  poetry,  the  poetic  aspect  of 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  313 

nature,  and  the  tragic  forces  in  life  and  literature.  Schopen- 
hauer's best  thought  on  aesthetics  pervades  the  book  in  solu- 
tion with  much  that  comes  from  Hegel.  There  is  none  of 
Schopenhauer's  pessimism ;  a  good  deal  of  Hegel's  healthy 
hopefulness.  Poetry  is  defined  simply  by  Professor  Everett 
(p.  92)  as  "  a  process  of  imagining  in  speech."  For  further 
criticism,  see  §  8,  References  on  the  Theory  of  Art. 

GERUZEZ,  E.     Cours  de  litterature,  rhetorique,  poe'tique,  histoire 

litteraire.     Paris. 

The  first  seventy-three  pages  of  pt.  I  deal  with  poetics.     The 
book  may  be  recommended  to  beginners. 

GILDON,  CH.  The  Complete  Art  of  Poetry.  2  vols.  Lond.  : 
1718. 

See  §  23. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON.  Werke.  (Hempel  ed.)  36  vols.  in  23. 
Berlin  :  1879. 

Bd.  XXIX  Aufsatze  zur  Literatur.  See  indexes  in  Bde.  II, 
XXVIII,  XXIX,  and  index  to  Bde.  I-XXXVI  in  Bd.  XXXVI. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON.  Sammtliche  Werke.  40  vols.  in  20. 
Stutt.  :  1840. 

Bd.  XXX  Winckelmann,  Ueber  Laokoon,  Wahrheit  und  Wahr- 
scheinlichkeit,  u.  s.  w.  ;  Bd.  XXXI  Deutsche  Baukunst,  Verschie- 
denes  iiber  Kunst,  u.  s.  w. ;  Bd.  XXXII  Deutsche  Literatur; 
Bd.  XXXIII  Auswartige  Literatur  und  Volkspoesie ;  Bd.  XXXV, 
pp.  333-459  Theater  und  dramatische  Poesie. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON.  Correspondence  between  Schiller  and 
Goethe.  Trans,  by  L.  D.  Schmitz.  2  vols.  Lond.:  1877. 
(Vols.  XIII,  XIV  of  Goethe's  Works.) 

'Vol.  I,  pp.  321,322,  324-327  Aristotle,  pp.  398,  399,  428-430,439- 
460  Epic  and  Drama;  vol.  II,  pp.  371-375. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON,  and  ECKERMANN,  J.  P.     Gesprache  mit 
Goethe.     6te  Aufl.     3  vols.     Leipz. :  1885. 
See  Register  in  Bd.  III. 


314  LITERARY   CRITICISM.  [§  20. 

GOETHE,  J.  W.  VON,  ECKERMANN,  J.  P.,  and  M.  SORET.  Con- 
versations of  Goethe.  Trans,  by  J.  Oxenford.  Lond.  : 
1875.  (Vol.  VI  of  Goethe's  works.) 

See  index. 

While  Goethe  in  no  place  systematically  develops  a  theory  of 
poetry,  the  genesis  of  his  theory  and  the  course  of  his  opinions 
are  not  difficult  to  discover.  His  aesthetic  descent  is  not,  as 
Mr.  Bosanquet  thinks,  from  Lessing,  Winckelmann,  and  Kant, 
by  way  of  Schiller,  but  rather  from  Lessing  and  Winckelmann  by 
way  of  Herder.  For  though  Goethe  was  profoundly  influenced 
by  Schiller's  interpretation  of  Kant's  doctrine  of  the  harmony  of 
the  moral  and  the  natural  orders  in  the  realm  of  the  aesthetic, 
he  was  rather  confirmed  in  the  course  of  his  own  development 
than  converted  to  any  alien  way  of  thinking.  As  to  his  utter- 
ances on  poetics,  while  his  Deutsche  Baukunst,  his  contribu- 
tions to  Die  Horen,  and  his  Der  Sammler  und  die  Seinigen  are 
in  general  restricted  to  the  plastic  arts,  the  conclusions  there 
reached  concerning  the  characteristic  (typical  or  significant) 
and  the  individual  apply  as  well  to  music  and  to  poetry.  It  is 
in  his  Conversations,  however,  in  his  Letters,  his  Wahrheit  and 
Dichtung,  his  Spriiche,  and  occasional  poems  that  the  course  of 
his  theory  and  its  relation  to  details  are  especially  to  be  sought. 
The  following  outline  of  his  aesthetic  growth  maybe  suggestive 
to  the  student  : 

(i)  In  his  earliest  writings  he  rejects  tradition  and  insists 
upon  the  free  utterance  of  the  significant  ;  the  method  of  utter- 
ance being  left  to  the  genius.  (See  Deutsche  Baukunst,  1773  ; 
Der  Schiffer,  1778.)  The  content  of  art  is  furnished  by  the 
artist's  interpretation  of  the  harmonies  of  the  universe.  "  The 
world  lies  before  the  artist  as  before  its  Creator,  who,  at  the 
moment  when  He  enjoys  his  creation,  enjoys  also  the  harmonies 
by  virtue  of  which  he  created  the  world  —  the  harmonies  which 
constitute  its  existence."  The  art,  even  of  the  savage,  which 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  315 

acts  on  what  lies  around  it  from  inward,  single,  individual,  inde- 
pendent feeling,  is  characteristic  art  and  is  true  (Baukunst). 
This  period  of  Gothic  subjectivity  and  individualism  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  revolt  to  the  other  extreme. 

(2)  The  necessity  of  an  objective  determination  of  beauty  is 
recognized,  and  the  poet,  influenced  by  the  official  routine  of 
his   life  in   Weimar,   and  to  no  slight  degree  by  his  reading 
of   Spinoza,  attains  a  deeper  insight  into  the   significance  of 
reality.     "I  know  God,  rebus  singularibus,  through  particular 
phenomena  and  through  those  only"  (Letter  to  Jacobi).    Goethe 
now  rejoices  in  the  contemplation  of  manifold  forms  as  developed 
from  primitive  and  general  types,  and  looks  for  the  meaning 
of  the   individually  characteristic  in   the   characteristic  of  the 
universal.     "  Only  by  bounds  self-set  is  mastery  gained.     Law 
alone  gives  liberty."     This  period  of  aesthetic  reflection  and 
practice  culminates  in  a  Hellenism  as  severe,  formal,  and  sym- 
bolical as  the  romanticism   of   the  former  period  was  capri- 
cious and  unrestrained.      Before  the  essential  and  the  typical 
of  classic  art,  the  arbitrary  and  the  individual  fade.     In  the 
masterpieces    of  Greece   "  is   Necessity :    God."      The   poetic 
genius  of  Goethe  did   not,  however,  suffer  him  to  abide  in  a 
passionless  atmosphere  of  Hellenism.     While  already  feeling 
his  way  to   an  aesthetic  position  which  should  transcend  the 
dualism  of  his  earlier  thought,  he  was  led  by  his  intercourse 
with    Schiller   to   a   more    sympathetic  understanding   of   the 
doctrines  of  Kant,  and  so  to  the  last  stage  of  his  aesthetic 
theory. 

(3)  This  was  a  conception  of  beauty  as  subsuming  both  the 
significant  attribute  and  the  symbolical  form  ;  thus  revealing 
the  purpose  of  the  characteristic  in  the  elaboration  of  the  form, 
and  the  individuality  of  the  form  in  its  manifestation  of  the 
characteristic.     But  Goethe  does  not  strive  to  reduce  Beauty  to 
a  definite  abstract  concept :   "  Beauty  is  an  ultimate  principle 
which  itself  is  never  revealed  to  sense,  but  which  is  reflected 


316  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

in  a  thousand  different  manifestations  of  the  creative  mind  — 
a  reflection  as  manifold  and  varied  as  the  universe  itself." 
"  Alles  vergangliche  ist  nur  ein  Gleichniss."  "  Law  which 
manifests  itself  in  freedom  and  in  harmony  with  its  own  condi- 
tions, produces  the  objectively  beautiful  "  (Eckermann).  For 
his  theory  of  the  beauty  of  nature,  Eckermann  maybe  consulted 
'  (Oxenford's  trans.,  pp.  244-246  ;  pp.  157,  158).  An  object  of 
nature  is  beautiful  in  so  far  as  it  reveals  its  essential  character. 
This  consists  in  conformity  to  the  type  and  the  laws  of  develop- 
ment plus  the  individualizing  environment.  Beauty  in  art,  on 
the  one  hand,  penetrates  beneath  the  actual  and  the  intel- 
lectually comprehensible  ;  on  the  other,  it  is  dependent  upon 
the  actual  phenomena  in  whose  manifestations  of  beauty  that 
intangible  ultimate  must  be  found.  Beauty  in  art  cannot  be 
denned,  but  "  the  artist's  work  is  real  in  as  far  as  it  is  always 
true  ;  ideal  in  that  it  is  never  actual."  As  to  the  purpose  of 
art  —  and  this  applies  to  poetry  —  "  its  highest  achievement  is 
to  give  to  the  rough  semblance  the  illusion  of  a  higher  truth  " 
(Wahrheit  und  Dichtung).  "The  work  of  the  poet  consists 
in  presentations  to  sense.  The  highest  perfection  is  reached 
when  the  spirit  of  life  informs  them,  so  that  they  seem  to 
every  one  to  be  concretely  present."  Poetry  at  its  best  appears 
to  be  altogether  external  and  plastic  (Spriiche).  As  to  where 
the  poetical  resides,  Goethe  says  to  Eckermann,  "  No  material 
is,  strictly  speaking,  unpoetical  as  soon  as  the  poet  knows 
what  to  do  with  it."  The  poet  does  not  represent  scientific,  but 
artistic  concepts.  By  his  imagination  the  artistic  concept  of 
that  which  is  characteristic  (or  significant)  is  embodied  in  style. 
The  end  of  art  is  in  art  —  just  as  the  end  of  nature  is  in  nature. 
Here  Goethe  agrees  with  Kant's  doctrine  of  the  beautiful,  "  the 
form  of  purposiveness  in  an  object,  in  as  far  as  this  can  be  per- 
ceived without  our  referring  it  to  any  end  "  (Bosanquet,  Hist,  of 
Aesth.,  p.  264).  The  materials  of  poetry,  as  of  art,  are  without 
limit :  —  morals,  religion,  and  science  in  so  far  as  they  possess 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  317 

general  human  interest  (Eckermann,  p.  83).  As  to  the  source 
of  poetry,  "  art  requires  no  ennobling  purpose,  for  art  springs 
from  a  kind  of  religious  sense,  a  deep,  immutable  seriousness  " 
(Spriiche,  690).  As  to  the  function  of  poetry,  "true  poetry 
bears  this  mark,  that  it  is  an  earthly  gospel  setting  us  free,  by 
an  inner  serenity  and  an  outward  soothing  effect,  from  the 
burdens  of  life  ;  ...  it  lifts  us  into  higher  regions  and  enables 
us  to  obtain  a  bird's-eye  view  of  the  confusion  and  the  perplexi- 
ties of  earth  ''  (Wahrheit  und  Dichtung). 

The  theories  of  Schiller  and  Goethe,  enriched  by  reciprocal 
suggestion  and  criticism,  have  a  direct  bearing  not  only  upon  the 
poetics  of  the  philosophers  who  succeeded  them,  —  Schelling, 
Fichte,  Hegel,  —  but  upon  the  poetry  of  Germany,  and  indi- 
rectly (through  Coleridge,  Wordsworth,  Arnold,  and  Ruskin) 
upon  the  poetics  and  the  poetry  of  England.  Since  the  appear- 
ance of  Schiller's  Ueber  naive  und  sentimentale  Dichtung 
(1795-96)  and  Goethe's  Deutsche  Baukunst  (1773)  the  dog- 
matic strife  between  ancient  and  modern  poetics  has  given  place 
to  an  inquiry  into  the  development  of  the  aesthetic  conscious- 
ness and  its  relation  to  the  history  of  artistic  creation. 

For  other  references,  see  the  Goethe-Jahrbuch,  1:17  Goethe 
und  Lessing,  5:298  Zu  Goethes  Aufsatzen  iiber  Kunst; 
Rosenkranz,  Goethe  und  seine  Werke  (Konigsberg :  1847), 
pp.  8-1 6  Der  jetzige  Standpunkt  der  Kritik,  pp.  29-36  Die 
humanitare  Kritik,  pp.  65-78  Goethe  als  Kunstforscher ; 
Schubarth,  Zur  Beurtheilung  Goethes  (2.  Aufl.  2  vols.  Breslau  : 
1820),  Bd.  II,  pp.  48—147  Kunst  und  Alterthum,  pp.  148—200 
Poesie  und  Kritik,  pp.  201-425  Aesthetische  Aphorismen  ;  and 
Blackie's  Wisdom  of  Goethe  (N.  Y.  :  1884),  pp.  Ixxvii-lxxxiii, 

109—147,    2OI-22I. 

GOTTSCHALL,  R.     Poetik.     Die  Dichtkunst  und  ihre  Technik. 
3.  verb.  Aufl.     2  vols.  in  i.     Breslau:   1873. 
See,  for  notice,  §  21,  B  3. 


318  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§30. 

GOTTSCHED,  J.  C.    Versuch  einer  Kritischen  Dichtkunst.    1750. 

See  §  21,  B  3.  And  consult  Franz  Gervoes,  Die  Poetik  Gott- 
sched's  u.  der  Schweitzer  (Quellen  u.  Forschungen,  vol.  LXI) ; 
and  Job.  Criiger,  J.  C.  Gottsched  und  die  Schweitzer  (Berlin  u. 
Stuttg. :  1884). 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.     A  Handbook  of  Poetics.     Boston  :   1885. 

A  careful  outline  of  the  subject  adapted  to  the  use  of  begin- 
ners, whom  it  introduces  to  problems  not  only  of  the  older  but 
of  the  more  modern,  especially  the  German,  criticism.  The 
work  presents  in  classified  form  suggestion  and  example  which 
the  student  may  elaborate  for  himself.  The  treatment  of  style 
and  metre  is,  perhaps,  more  satisfactory  than  that  of  literary 
forms.  The  author  generally  offers  a  simple  but  at  the  same 
time  philosophic  solution  of  difficulties,  and  his  method  of 
division  is  suggestive.  Criticisms  of  the  work,  with  counter- 
criticisms  by  the  author,  will  be  found  in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes. 
(See  §  23.) 

GURNEY,  EDMUND.     Tertium  Quid.     2  vols.     Lond.  :   1887. 

In  the  second  volume  of  this  readable  collection  of  essays, 
the  author  discusses  the  Arnold-Austin-Swinburne  controversy. 
The  essay  Poets,  Critics,  and  Class-Lists,  enters  a  complaint 
against  the  practice  of  ranking  poets.  Gurney  points  out  the 
fact  that  rank  or  grade  can  be  determined  only  for  objects  existing 
under  similar  conditions  ;  that  these  conditions  must  be  clearly 
defined,  and  the  consideration  of  them  conducted  upon  accepted 
principles.  But,  if  we  are  to  hold  with  him  that  there  is  in 
poetry  a  '  non-reasonable '  element,  then  all  attempts,  such  as 
those  of  Mr.  Arnold  and  Mr.  Austin,  to  analyze  poetry  and  to 
rank  poets  by  reasoned  discourse  must  be  deemed  beside  the 
question.  The  substitution  of  (  non-reasoned  '  for  '  non-reason- 
able '  would  afford  a  more  scientific  basis  for  discussion. 
The  student  should  compare  with  Gurney's  '  magical  element ' 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  319 

Swinburne's  "something  at  once  perceptible  and  indefinable." 
He  will  note  also'  that  while  the  principles  of  harmony  and  of 
contrast  may  promote  the  pleasurable  effects  of  poetry,  they  do 
not  in  Gurney's  opinion  account  for  the  charm  of  "  quintessen- 
tially  poetic  passages."  That  the  musical  element  does  not 
account  for  the  charm,  and  that  the  poetic  whole  is  the  prod- 
uct rather  than  the  sum  of  the  '  mind-pleasure '  and  the  '  ear- 
pleasure,'  are  thoughts  worthy  of  development.  In  the  chapter 
on  the  Appreciation  of  Poetry  the  discussion  is  carried  forward 
on  the  same  lines  :  Austin's  attempted  classification  of  styles 
of  poetry  is  assailed  as  confused  and  inadequate  ;  Arnold's 
laws  of  '  poetic  beauty  and  poetic  truth  '  are,  with  justice, 
pronounced  vague.  The  canon  of  '  popularity '  is  treated  with 
respect,  although  acknowledged  to  depend  upon  incalculable 
conditions.  And  the  moral  of  the  whole  is  that  "  we  should  be 
chary  of  attaching  too  absolute  a  value  to  our  own  orders  of 
merit,  and  of  measuring  poetical  achievements  by  any  '  reason- 
able' considerations." 

GURNEY,  EDMUND.     The  Power  of  Sound.     Lond.  :   1880. 

One  of  the  most  suggestive  works  upon  the  subject.  None, 
perhaps,  more  scientifically  and  sympathetically  discusses  the 
relation  existing  between  music  and  poetry.  The  greater  part 
of  the  volume  will  .be  of  service  in  the  study  of  versification. 
(See  §  23.)  For  the  theory  of  poetry  the  opening  paragraphs 
of  chap.  XIX,  The  Sound  Element  in  Verse,  should  be  studied. 
The  enjoyment  of  poetry  is  roughly  divided  into  two  kinds, 
according  as  the  impressions  produced  by  it  could,  or  could 
not,  be  produced  by  prose.  See  also  the  last  pages  of  the 
chapter,  especially  pp.  448,  449,  upon  Lessing's  Theory  of 
Poetry. 

GUYAU,  M.-J.     Les  problem es  de  1'esthe'tique  contemporaine. 
Paris:   1884. 


320  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

GUYAU,  M.-J.     L'Art  au  point   de   vue  sociologique.     Paris : 
1889. 

The  former  volume  treats,  with  continual  reference  to  recent 
contributions  to  social  and  aesthetic  problems,  of  the  principle 
of  art  and  of  poetry,  the  future  of  art  and  of  poetry,  and  the 
abiding  quality  of  the  laws  of  verse.  The  latter  contains  a 
remarkably  acute  study  of  the  effect  produced  by  philosophical 
and  social  ideas  upon  French  poetry  in  this  century,  and  of 
the  corresponding  role  of  poetry  in  relation  to  life. 

HARTMANN,  E.  VON.     Ausgewahlte  Werke.     Berlin:   1887. 

Bd.  IV  Zweiter  Systemat.  Theil,  pp.  714-783  Philosophic  des 
Schonen. 

The  analysis  of  poetry,  although  apparently  logical  and 
genetic,  is  evidently  forced  into  conformity  with  a  preconceived 
system  of  aesthetics.  Regarding  all  poetry  as  spoken  or  read, 
the  author  discovers  the  following  progressive  classification  of 
its  forms  : 

A.  Spoken.  —  i.    The  Epic:  (a)  the  plastic  epic,  or  the  pure 
epical  epic  ;  (b)  the  picturesque,  or  lyrical  epic  ;  2.   The  Lyric: 
(a)  the  epical  lyric  ;  (£)  the  pure  lyrical  lyric  ;  (c)  the  dramatic 
lyric,  or  the  lyric  of  passion  and  motivation  ;  3.   The  Drama  : 
(a)  the  lyrical  drama  ;    (b)  the   epical   drama  ;    (c)   the  pure 
dramatic  drama. 

B.  Read.  —  i .    '  Read  '    as    related    to    '  spoken  '    poetry  ; 
2.  Classification  of  poetry  as  read  :  personal  narrative,  letter- 
poetry,  diary-lyrics,  the  romance,  short  story,  etc. 

HASLEWOOD,  J.     (Ed.)     Ancient  Critical  Essays  upon  English 
Poets  and  Poesy.     2  vols.     Lond.  :   1811-15. 

Vol.  I  Puttenham  ;  vol.  II  Webbe,  James  I,  Campion,  Daniel, 
Boulton,  Letters  of  Harvey  and  Spenser.  See  §§  21,  B  2,  and 
24,  B  i,  2. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  321 

HAZLITT,  W.     Lectures    on    the    English   Poets  and    English 
Comic  Writers.     Bohn  Libr.     Lond. :  1876. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  1-25  Poetry. 

His  keen  and  sympathetic  appreciation  of  merit  distinguishes 
Hazlitt  as  an  author  who,  though  essentially  of  the  romantic 
school,  could  acknowledge  the  debt  owed  by  English  poetry  to 
the  school  that  had  preceded.  His  paper  in  the  London 
Magazine  on  the  anti-Pope  controversy  gave  both  Bowles  and 
his  opponents  their  due  and  settled  the  dispute.  His  admira- 
tion of  Coleridge  and  the  German  school  of  criticism  is  generally 
held  in  check  by  a  judicial  conservatism.  .  The  following  defini- 
tions, given  in  the  chapter  mentioned  above,  are  rather  of  the 
poetic  faculty  than  of  the  art :  "  Poetry  is  the  language  of  the 
imagination  and  the  passions.  Poetry  is  the  universal  language 
which  the  heart  holds  with  nature  and  itself"  (p.  i).  "  Poetry 
in  its  matter  and  form  is  natural  imagery,  or  feeling,  combined 
with  passion  and  fancy"  (p.  15). 

HEGEL,  G.  W.  F.     Werke.     18  vols.     Berlin  :   1833-48. 

Bd.  X,  Theile   1-3  Aesthetik,  Bd.  X,  Abthl.  3,  pp.  220-581  Die 
Poesie.     (See  §  g?  p.  101,  above.) 

See  also  Bosanquet's  Introd.  to  Hegel's  Philos.  of  Fine  Art 
(Lond.  :  1886)  and  Kedney's  Hegel's  Aesthetics  (Chicago  : 
1885),  and  Benard,  above.  No  authority  can  be  prescribed 
the  thorough  study  of  which  will  be  more  beneficial.  Not  that 
Hegel's  scheme,  classification,  and  theory  of  poetry  are  implicitly 
to  be  adopted  ;  but  that  they  are  systematic  and  profound,  and 
even  through  piecemeal  translations  are  the  basis  of  much 
recent  English  and  American  poetics.  There  is  no  complete 
rendering  into  English  of  the  chapters  on  poetry.  Kedney's 
work,  though  sympathetic,  is  inadequate  because  of  its  brevity, 
while  because  of  its  exegetical  nature  it  is  not  unmixed  Hegel. 
Kedney's  eighth  chapter  will,  however,  be  of  value  to  such  as 


322  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

have  not  a  reading  knowledge  of  German.  Bosanquet's  close 
and  luminous  translation  of  the  Introduction  is  the  best  pro- 
paedeutic to  the  Aesthetik.  It  is  reprinted  as  an  Appendix  to 
Bosanquet's  History  of  Aesthetic.  Pp.  171-173  in  Bosanquet 
furnish  a  conception  of  the  trend  of  Hegel's  thought,  although 
the  footnote  to  p.  172  may  possibly  convey  the  erroneous 
notion  that  he  underrated  the  function  of  sound  in  -poetry. 
That  such  was  not  the  case  is  evident  from  the  Aesthetik, 
vol.  Ill,  pp.  274,  275.  A  truer  statement  would  be  that  beauty 
of  sound  was  not  overrated  by  Hegel.  The  report  that  he 
regarded  poetic  form  as  a  matter  of  indifference  proceeds  from 
a  misinterpretation  of  an  isolated  passage  on  p.  227  of  the 
same  volume.  What  he  there  says  about  the  translatableness 
of  poetry  should  be  construed  in  connection  with  the  three 
remarks  (p.  275)  that  precede  the  section  entitled  Die  poetische 
Vorstellung.  Another  rumor  that  has  got  abroad  makes  Hegel 
pronounce  metre  to  be  the  only  condition  absolutely  indispen- 
sable to  poetry.  For  the  correction  of  this  error,  see  the  Aes- 
thetik, vol.  Ill,  pp.  234,  235,  and  275  The  Conditions  Demanded 
by  Poetry.  The  passage  so  often  misconstrued,  concerning  the 
value  of  metre,  will  be  found  on  p.  289.  It  should  be  trans- 
lated as  follows:  "Versified  prose  gives  us  not  poetry,  but 
merely  verse  —  just  as  a  purely  poetic  utterance  when  sub- 
jected to  prosaic  treatment  results  in  poetic  prose  ;  but,  for  all 
that,  metre  or  rhyme  is  undoubtedly  indispensable  to  poetry  as 
the  prime  and  peculiar  atmosphere  (or  fragrance)  by  which  it  is 
made  manifest  to  the  senses  ;  indeed,  metre  is  more  necessary 
than  picturesque  or  so-called  elegant  diction."  On  the  defi- 
nition of  poetry,  see  p.  222  et  seq. ;  for  Hegel's  scheme  of  dis- 
cussion, p.  235  ;  for  the  material  of  poetry,  p.  236.  For  the  place 
of  poetry  among  the  arts,  see  Schasler,  Gesch.  d.  Aesthetik 
(Berl. :  1872),  pp.  967,  1003,  where  will  be  found  a  reasonable 
criticism  of  the  classification  (on  the  basis  of  appeal  to  eye,  ear, 
or  imagination)  made  by  Hegel,  Vischer,  and  Weisse. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  323 

HERDER,  J.  G.  VON.      Sammtliche  Werke.     31    vols.      Hrsg. 
von  B.  Suphan.     Berlin:   1877-89. 

Vol.  VIII,   p.  334  Ueber  die  Wirkung  der  Dichtkunst  auf  die 
Sitten  der  Volker  in  alten  und  neuen  Zeiten. 

Herder  emphasizes  here,  as  in  his  Kalligone,  the  principle, 
"  The  play  of  mankind,  like  the  play  of  nature,  is  thoughtful, 
earnest."  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  he  ranked  among  the 
"free"  arts  those  only  that  served  a  purpose;  speech  was 
one  of  these  "  free  "  arts,  but  not  music  or  the  plastic  arts. 
Cf.  Kant's  Kritik  d.  Urtheilskraft,  to  which  the  Kalligone  was 
written  as  a  reply.  Herder  represented  pre-Kantian  principles, 
and  was  consequently  unable  to  appreciate  the  organic  method 
of  Kant.  He  defines  beauty  as  the  expression  of  the  inner 
life,  but  fails  to  distinguish  between  the  sphere  of  beauty 
and  those  of  truth  and  goodness.  Hence  sprang  the  didactic 
element,  which,  as  shown  above,  vitiates  his  classification  of 
the  arts. 

HERDER,  J.  G.  VON.     Spirit  of    Hebrew  Poetry.     Trans,   by 
James  Marsh.     2  vols.     Burlington  :   1833. 

Especially  forcible  in  the  historical  treatment  of  figures. 

HOLMES,  O.  W.    Ralph  Waldo  Emerson.    (Am.  Men  of  Letters.) 
Boston  :   1885. 

See  pp.  312-324  On  Emerson's  Poems. 

HOWISON,  G.  H.     Overland  Mo.,  N.  s.,  5  :  523  The  Essential 
Principle  in  Poetry.     (Repr.  San  Francisco:   1894.) 

A  clear  and  adequate  discussion  of  the  theme  of  poetry,  "  a 
rounded  whole  of  vigorous  unity,  .  .  .  founded  on  actual 
experience,  but  transfigured  in  the  light  of  the  ideal  borne 
within  it,"  of  the  relation  of  this  ideal  to  the  reality  of  nature 
and  the  Supreme  Ideal,  of  the  conditions  determining  the 
embodiment  of  the  theme,  and  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
medium. 


324  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

HUMBOLDT,  ALEXANDER  VON.  Cosmos.  Trans,  from  the  Ger- 
man by  E.  C.  Otte  and  W.  S.  Dallas.  5  vols.  N.  Y.  : 
1862. 

See   the   chapter   on  Poetic  Descriptions  of   Nature,  in  vol.  II, 
pp.  1-105. 

HUNT,   LEIGH.     Selections  from  the  English  Poets.     N.  Y.  : 


Pt.  I  Imagination  and  Fancy,  pp.  1-49  What  is  Poetry?   pt.  II, 
pp.  1-50  Illustrative  Essay  on  Wit  and  Humor. 

"  Poetry  ...  is  the  utterance  of  a  passion  for  truth,  beauty, 
and  power,  embodying  and  illustrating  its  conceptions  by  imagi- 
nation and  fancy,  and  modulating  its  language  on  the  principle 
of  variety  in  uniformity."  Hunt  distinguishes,  as  few  critics 
have  done,  between  the  poetic  feeling,  or  faculty,  and  the 
poetic  operation  of  art.  He  discusses  in  turn,  with  simplicity 
and  directness,  imagination,  fancy,  versification,  the  classifica- 
tion of  poets,  poetic  truth,  beauty,  and  power.  A  useful 
edition,  with  introduction  and  notes,  has  been  prepared  by 
Prof.  A.  S.  Cook  (Boston). 

JAMES  I  OF  ENGLAND.      The    Essays   of   a    Prentice   in    the 
Divine  Art  of  Poesie.  .  .  .     Eng.  Reprints.  .  .  .     Ed.  by 
E.  Arber.     Lond.  :   1869. 
See,  for  brief  notice,  §  24,  B  z. 

JEFFREY,  FRANCIS.     Contributions  to  the  Edinburgh  Review. 
N.  Y.  :   1860. 

Containing  the  famous  reviews  of  Wordsworth  and  his  con- 
temporaries in  poetry.  A  selection  from  his  Essays,  "  with  a 
view  to  illustrating  his  style  and  his  range  and  methods  as 
a  literary  critic,"  has  been  recently  edited  by  Lewis  E.  Gates 
(Boston  :  1894).  It  contains  an  excellent  introduction  on  the 
development  of  periodical  criticism.  See  also  §  21,  B  2. 


§20.]  REFERENCES.  325 

JOHNSON,  S.     Works,     n  vols.     Oxford:   1825. 

Vol.  II  Rambler:  No.  4  Romance,  pp.  36,37  Pastorals,  pp.  86,  88, 
90,92,  94  Versification  ;  vol.  Ill,  pp.  139,  140  Samson  Agonistes, 
pp.  156  Tragi-Comedy,  p.  168  Poetry;  vol.  IV  Adventurer, 
p.  58  Criticism  and  Poetry;  Idler:  No.  45  Painting,  pp.  60,  6 1 
Criticism,  p.  63  Art  and  Language,  pp.  76,  79  Painting,  p.  82 
Beauty ;  vol.  V,  pp.  55-60  Observations  of  the  Tragedy  of 
Macbeth,  pp.  118-124  Shakespeare  and  the  Unities,  pp.  366- 
414  Trans,  of  Brumoy's  Dissertations  upon  the  Greek  Comedy, 
pp.  414-430  General  Conclusion  to  Brumoy's  Greek  Theatre  ; 
vol.  VII,  pp.  14-16  (Cowley)  Wit,  pp.  125-142  (Milton)  Epic 
Poetry,  pp.  301-307  Dryden  as  a  Critic. 

In  vols.  V  and  VI  will  be  found  the  Lives  of  the  Poets,  six 
of  which  are  republished  with  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Johnson, 
in  Matthew  Arnold's  edition  (Lond.  :  1886).  Arnold's  words,  in 
the  Preface  to  the  Lives,  concerning  Dr.  Johnson's  literary  judg- 
ment, hold  true  for  his  aesthetic  principles  at  large  :  "  Of  poetry 
he  speaks  as  a  man  whose  sense  for  that  with  which  he  is 
dealing  is  in  some  degree  imperfect.  Yet  even  on  poetry 
Johnson's  utterances  are  valuable,  because  they  are  the  utter- 
ances of  a  great  and  original  man."  According  to  Johnson, 
"  Poetry  is  the  art  of  uniting  pleasure  with  truth  by  calling 
imagination  to  the  help  of  reason  "  ;  an  excellent  specimen  of 
the  eighteenth-century  theory  of  poetry. 

An  edition  of  Selections  from  Johnson  is  promised  by  Pro- 
fessor H.  H.  Neill  (Athenaeum  Press  Series,  Boston). 

JORDAN,  W.     Episteln  und  Vortrage.     Frankfurt  a.  M.  :   1891. 

Pp.  76-156  Bild  und  Wort. 

Reopens  the  question  discussed  by  Lessing  in  the  Laokoon. 
Some  of  the  illustrations  are  new. 

JOUBERT,  J.     Pensees,  pre'cede's  .  .  .  d'une  notice  .  .  .  par  P. 
de  Raynal.     2  vols.     Paris  :   1877-80. 
Tome  II,  pp.  263-272  De  la  Poesie, 


326  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

Plato's  arraignment,  on  metaphysical  grounds,  of  art  as  pre- 
senting but  a  third-hand  copy  of  reality,  is  answered  by  Joubert. 
The  poet,  he  says,  does  not  copy  a  copy.  He  clarifies  ma- 
terial forms  (which  are  '  impressions '  of  the  idea)  and  makes 
of  them  a  cast  from  the  archetype,  which  shall  retain  the 
properties  of  the  archetype.  His  inspiration  springs  from 
the  creative  quality  of  imagination  ;  the  product  of  which 
—  images  —  are  his  only  symbols.  He  vitalizes  them  with 
ideas.  The  function  of  poetry  is  to  enchant  the  hearer  with 
the  changing  and  inexhaustible  delight  of  beauty,  freshness, 
and  meaning  ;  but  the  poetic  appreciation  varies  with  the  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  hearer  himself.  Therefore,  only  to  the  sensitive 
soul  does  the  real  charm  of  a  poem  —  its  invisible  and  subtle 
principle  —  make  its  full  appeal.  (Cf.  Gurney,  Tertium  Quid, 
The  Appreciation  of  Poetry.)  The  poet  need  not,  however, 
despair  of  an  audience,  for  to  every  man  capable  of  producing 
an  imaginative  creation  there  is  provided  his  alter  ego,  capable 
of  appreciating. 

KANT,  IMM.     Kritik  of  Judgment.     Trans,  by  J.  H.  Bernard. 

Lond.  :  1892. 

For  the  study  of  modern  poetics  a  knowledge  of  the  Critique 
of  Judgment  is  indispensable.  A  list  of  editions  and  com- 
mentaries will  be  found  in  §  3,  B  i,  and  §  8.  Three  streams 
of  theory  converge  in  this  Critique  :  the  English  and  Ger- 
man aesthetico-critical,  —  Burke,  Kaimes,  Reynolds,  Hogarth, 
Baumgarten,  Lessing,  Winckelmann ;  the  English  abstract- 
sensationalist  and  individualist,  —  Bacon,  Locke,  Shaftesbury, 
Berkeley,  Hume ;  and  the  continental  abstract-rationalist,  — 
Descartes,  Spinoza,  Leibnitz,  Wolff.  Kant's  aesthetic  doctrines 
were  made  concrete  and  popularized  by  Schiller.  Bearing  the 
impress  of  Schiller  and  Goethe  (who  also  adapted  and  modified 
Kant),  the  Kantian  aesthetic  has  passed  not  only  into  popular 
poetic  theory,  but  into  the  dialectic  of  Schelling  and  Hegel. 
See  Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  and  Goethe,  above. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  327 

KEBLE,  J.     Occasional  Papers  and  Reviews. 

See  particularly  the  Reviews  on  Coplestone's  Praelectiones 
and  Lockhart's  Life  of  Scott  (from  British  Critic,  1838).  The 
following  exposition  of  poetry  calls  for  comparison  with  Aris- 
totle's view  of  imitation,  and  with  Mill's  associational  basis 
of  the  poetic  art :  "  Poetry  is  the  indirect  expression  in  words, 
most  appropriately  in  metrical  words,  of  some  overpowering  emo- 
tion, or  ruling  taste  or  feeling,  the  direct  indulgence  whereof  is 
somehow  repressed."  Keble  looked  upon  all  poetic  expres- 
sion, therefore,  as  a  species  of  catharsis,  by  which  the  over- 
burdened heart  is  relieved,  imaginatively,  of  emotions  which 
could  not  with  like  decorum  find  utterance  in  actual  life.  See 
Cardinal  Newman's  address  on  Keble,  an  article  in  New  Eng- 
lander,  56  :  239,  on  the  Poetry  of  the  Tractarian  Movement, 
and  the  article  '  Keble  '  in  the  Encycl.  Brit.,  gth  ed. 

KLEINPAUL,    E.     Poetik.     9.  umg.  und  verm.  Aufl.     Leipz.  : 
1892. 

Thl.  i  Die  Dichtungsformen,  Thl.  2  Die  Dichtungssprache,  Thl.  3 
Die  Dichtungsarten.     See  §  21,  B  3,  and  §  23. 

KNIGHT,   WILLIAM.      Studies   in    Philosophy   and   Literature. 
Lond.  :   1879. 

Pp.  264—282  A  Contribution  towards  a  Theory  of  Poetry. 

A  protest,  in  terms  popular  but  exact,  against  conventional- 
ism in  the  art.  It  provides  a  serviceable  introduction  to  the 
philosophy  of  the  subject.  Same  article  in  LittelFs  Living 
Age,  116:759.  ' 

KNIGH.T,  WILLIAM.     The  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful.     2  vols. 
Lond.  :   1891-93. 

Ft.  II,  chap.  VIII  Poetry. 

Adapted  to  the  beginner's  needs.  Two  principles  are  held 
to  govern  all  intellectual  processes  :  (i)  that  a  thing  is  known 


328  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

by  its  contrast  with  something  unlike  it,  e.g.,  the  beautiful  by 
contrast  with  the  ugly  ;  (2)  that  the  free  and  unimpeded  energy 
of  our  faculties  is  always  attended  by  joyful  emotion. 

KRALIK,    R.    VON.       Kunstbiichlein     gerechten     griindlichen 
Gebrauchs  aller  Freunde  der  Dichtkunst.     Wien  :   1891. 

A  work  of  considerable  merit.  The  author's  views  on  the 
relation  of  poetry  and  religion  excited  much  comment  when 
the  book  appeared. 

LANIER,  S.     The  Science  of  English  Verse.     N.  Y.  :   1880. 
See,  for  notice,  §  23. 

LESSING,  G.  E.     Werke.     20  vols.  in  12.     Berlin. 

Bd.  VI  Laokoon;  Bd.  VII  Hamburgische  Dramaturgic;  Bd.  XI, 
Abth.  1-2  Kleinere  Schriften  zur  dramatischen  Poesie  und  zur 
Fabel;  Bd.  XIII,  Abth.  2,  pp.  249-306  Wie  die  Alten  den 
Tod  gebildet,  pp.  332—347  Anmerkungen  zu  Winckelmann's 
Geschichte  der  Kunst. 

The  Laocoon  is,  perhaps,  the  most  valuable  contribution 
since  the  day  of  Winckelmann  to  a  certain  part  of  the  field  of 
aesthetics.  Lessing  came  to  conclusions  concerning  the  bound- 
aries of  painting  and  poetry,  the  dependence  of  either  art  on 
the  medium  used  and  the  manner  of  use,  the  difference  between 
ancient  and  modern  conceptions  of  beauty,  and  the  relative 
places  of  the  ugly,  the  ridiculous,  the  grotesque  in  poetry  and 
painting,  which,  though  in  great  measure  a  coordination  of  pre- 
ceding aesthetic  suggestions,  exercised  a  revolutionary  influ- 
ence upon  literary  criticism,  if  not  upon  the  criticism  of  art  in 
general. 

But  while  the  Laocoon  deserves  the  serious  attention  and 
admiration  of  the  student,  it  by  no  means  demands  unqualified 
assent,  even  to  its  fundamental  doctrines.  By  applying  the 
term  '  Mahlerey '  to  the  plastic  arts  without  discrimination, 
Lessing  obscures  the  distinction  between  painting  and  sculp- 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  329 

ture,  even  though  his  argument  has  reference  to  the  function 
of  the  latter.  His  services  are  to  poetics  rather  than  to  art- 
criticism  —  but  still  the  premises  of  his  literary  theory  may  be 
called  in  question.  Are  actions  the  only  proper  objects  of 
poetry  ?  Can  successive  signs  express  only  objects  which  are 
successive,  or  whose  parts  are  successive  ?  Can  poetry  avail 
itself  only  of  a  single  property  of  the  body  presented  ?  To  an- 
swer the  last  of  these  questions  in  the  affirmative  is  to  assert 
that  the  imagination  has  neither  the  power  of  retention  nor  of 
combination  ;  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  resultant  of  the 
images  presented  to  the  mind  by  verbal  symbols.  But  the 
most  ordinary  visualist  can  combine  the  successive  properties 
of  an  object  as  rehearsed  into  a  kaleidoscopic  image  concom- 
itant with  and  changing  with  the  description.  To  answer  the 
two  former  questions  in  the  affirmative  is  to  exclude  lyrical, 
elegiac,  idyllic,  and  reflective  poems  from  the  realm  of  poetry. 
If  the  lyric  be  retained  on  the  ground  that  it  portrays  the  action 
of  the  emotions,  what  shall  be  done  with  L'Allegro,  the  Deserted 
Village,  the  Seasons,  the  Task,  the  De  Rerum  Natura,  the 
nobler  philosophical  satire,  none  of  which  engages  in  emotional 
turmoil.  Still,  although  Lessing  attempted  to  restrict  the  realm 
of  poetry,  he  enriched  its  content  by  justifying  the  appeal  to 
all  aesthetic  emotions  of  which  man  is  capable.  His  limitation 
of  the  realm  should  be  examined  in  the  light  of  the  best  Eng- 
lish descriptive  poetry.  The  sources  of  his  poetics  should  be 
sought  in  Baumgarten,  Burke,  Kaimes,  Bodmer,  Breitinger, 
Hogarth,  Winckelmann,  Reynolds,  —  of  course  in  Aristotle, 
and  to  no  slight  degree  in  the  French  School  which  Lessing 
combated.  (See  Bosanquet,  Hist,  of  Aesth.,  p.  216  et  seq. ;  and 
Schasler,  p.  431  et  seq.)  Does  Lessing  distinguish  between 
poetry  and  prose?  See  Gurney's  Power  of  Sound,  pp.  148, 
149.  Consult  also  in  connection  with  the  Laocoon  the  follow- 
ing works  :  Jas.  Sime,  Lessing  (2  vols.  Lond.  :  1877),  vol.  I, 
pp.  247-308,  vol.  II,  pp.  1-62,  76-80 ;  Helen  Zimmern, 


330  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

Lessing,  His  Life  and  Works  (Lond. :  1878),  chap.  XI;  A. 
Stahr,  G.  E.  Lessing,  sein  Leben  und  seine  Werke  (3.  Aufl. 
2  vols.  Berlin  :  1864),  Theil  I,  pp.  168-179,  243-271,  315- 
361;  Theil  II,  pp.  26-30;  The  Life  and  Works  of  G.  E. 
Lessing  (Trans,  of  Stahr's  Lessing  by  E.  P.  -Evans.  2  vols. 
Boston  :  1866),  vol.  I,  pp.  183-193,  261-289,  337-383,  vol. 
II,  pp.  27-30;  E.  L.  Walter,  Lessing  on  the  Boundaries  of 
Poetry  and  Painting  (Ann  Arbor  :  1888.  Univ.  of  Mich. 
Philos.  Papers,  2d  Ser.,  No.  3)  ;  H.  Bliimner,  Laokoon-Studien 
(Freiburg  i.  B.  :  1881-82.  Bears  indirectly  upon  the  nature 
of  poetry,  discussing  (i)  the  use  of  allegory  in  plastic  art,  and 
(2)  the  determination  of  the  significant  moment  and  of  the 
transitory  element  as  propounded  by  Lessing). 

The  Laocoon  has  been  translated  by  Miss  Frothingham 
(Boston :  1890)  and  by  E.  C.  Beasley  (Bohn  Libr.).  The 
edition  of  Hamann  and  Upcott  (Oxford:  1892)  has  helpful 
notes.  For  other  notices  of  Lessing,  see  §§  8,  38,  41,  44,  47- 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     Lectures  on  the  English  Poets.     (Lowell  Insti- 
tute). 

Lecture  I  Definition  of  Poetry. 

A  statement  of  the  argument  for  the  '  magical '  or  '  un defin- 
able '  factor.  Cf.  Swinburne  and  Gurney. 

LOWELL,  J.  R.     Literary  and  Political  Essays  and  Addresses. 
6  vols.     Boston  :   1891. 

The  following  essays  are  especially  valuable  to  the  student 
of  poetry:  Vol.  I,  p.  218  Keats  ;  vol.  II,  p.  120  Swinburne's 
Tragedies,  p.  232  Lessing  ;  vol.  Ill,  p.  i  Shakespeare  Once 
More,  p.  95  Dryden,  p.  291  Chaucer  ;  vol.  IV  Pope,  Milton, 
Dante,  Spenser,  Wordsworth  ;  vol.  VI,  p.  68  Coleridge,  p.  99 
Wordsworth. 

MACAULAY,    T.    B.      Critical,    Historical,    and    Miscellaneous 
Kssnys.     6   vols.      N.  Y.  :    j86j, 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  331 

In  the  essay  on  Milton,  vol.  I,  pp.  206-211,  will  be  found 
the  argument  that  the  poetic  faculty  declines  as  civilization 
advances.  "  By  poetry,"  says  Macaulay,  "  we  mean  not  all 
writing  in  verse  nor  even  all  good  writing  in  verse.  Our  defi- 
nition excludes  many  metrical  compositions  which  on  other 
grounds  deserve  the  highest  praise.  By  poetry  we  mean  the 
art  of  employing  words  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  an 
illusion  on  the  imagination  —  the  art  of  doing  by  words  what 
the  painter  does  by  means  of  colors."  Does  Macaulay  dis- 
tinguish clearly  between  the  faculty  and  the  art  of  poetry  ? 
And  does  he  not  underestimate  the  importance  of  the  poetic 
conception  as  determining  the  treatment  of  the  subject  ?  See 
also  the  essay  on  Dryden  ;  and  compare  Courthope's  Liberal 
Movement,  pp.  24-28. 

MASSON,  D.    Essays,  Biographical  and  Critical  —  English  Poets. 
Cambr. :   1856. 

Pp.  409-446  Theories  of  Poetry  ;  pp.  447-475  Prose  and  Verse  — 
De  Quincey. 

An  excellent  compend  of  theories.  The  author  refers  all 
definitions  of  poetry  to  Aristotle  (in  the  Poetics)  or  to  Bacon 
(in  the  Advancement  of  Learning).  On  the  question  whether 
the  '  imitative  '  and  •  creative  '  theories  of  poetry  may  be  inter- 
preted as  two  aspects  of  the  same  truth,  see  §  19,  /,  C  3,  above. 
Masson  discriminates  between  the  poetic  temperament  and  the 
poetic  faculty,  and  defines  the  latter  as  the  power  of  'intellectually 
producing  a  new  or  artificial  concrete.  Poetry  itself  he  defines 
as  a  special  mode  of  intellectual  exercise,  possible  under  all 
degrees  of  emotional  excitement.  It  is  the  exercise  of  the 
mind  "imaginatively  or  in  the  figuring  forth  of  concrete  cir- 
cumstances "  (On  Wordsworth,  Shelley,  and  Keats).  An  im- 
portant principle  is  involved  in  the  proposition  that  metre 
holds  by  original  tenure  not  on  poetry  but  on  passion,  and 
that,  accordingly,  the  theories  of  Wordsworth,  etc.,  are  theories 


332  LITERARY  CRITICISM. 


of  verse  not  in  its  origin,  but  in  its  character  as  an  existing 
institution  in  literature.  With  this  discussion  may  be  com- 
pared Dallas's  theory  (Poetics.  London  :  1852),  which  is  here 
criticised. 

In  the  article  on  the  distinction  between  prose  and  verse 
(Essays,  pp.  447-475),  Professor  Masson  reverts  to  Coleridge's 
opinion,  that  the  line  must  be  drawn  not  between  poetry  and 
prose,  but  between  poetry  and  science.  On  the  relation  of 
poetry  to  science,  see  the  article  by  Professor  Thomas  in  Open 
Court,  3  :  1727. 

MILL,  J.  S.     Dissertations  and  Discussions.     3  vols.     Boston  : 
1865. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  89-120  Thoughts  on  Poetry  and  its  Varieties. 

Poetry  (as  acting  upon  the  emotions)  is  distinguished  first 
from  prose,  which  appeals  to  the  intellect ;  then  (as  portraying 
the  human  soul)  from  fiction,  which  gives  a  picture  of  life  ; 
lastly  (as  unconscious  of  a  listener)  from  eloquence,  which 
holds  intercourse  with  the  world.  Poetry,  says  Mill  (p.  97),  is 
feeling  confessing  itself  to  itself  in  moments  of  solitude,  and 
embodying  itself  in  symbols  which  are  the  nearest  possible 
representations  of  the  feeling  in  the  exact  shape  in  which  it 
exists  in  the  poet's  mind.  The  distinction  between  poetry  and 
eloquence  obtains,  according  to  Mill,  in  every  art.  On  p.  106 
will  be  found  the  principle  underlying  Mill's  exposition:  that  in 
poetry  emotions  are  the  links  of  association  by  which  ideas  are 
connected.  "What  is  poetry  but  the  thought  and  words  in 
which  emotion  spontaneously  embodies  itself  ? "  The  applica- 
tion of  the  theory  to  Wordsworth  and  Shelley  (p.  109  et  seq.}  is 
worthy  of  attention.  This  article  is  specially  commended  to 
the  consideration  of  the  student. 

MILTON,  JOHN.     Prose  Works.     Bohn  Libr. 
VoJ.  Ill,  p.  462  On  Education- 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  333 

The  following  is  the  passage  frequently  mistaken  for  an  abso- 
lute definition  of  Poetry  :  "  To  which  [namely,  Logic  and  Rhet- 
oric] poetry  would  be  made  subsequent,  or,  indeed,  rather 
precedent,  as  being  less  subtile  and  fine,  but  more  simple, 
sensuous,  and  passionate.  I  mean  not  here  the  prosody  of  a 
verse,  which  they  could  not  but  have  hit  on  before  among  the 
rudiments  of  grammar,  but  that  sublime  art  which  in  Aristotle's 
Poetics,  in  Horace  .  .  .  and  others,  teaches  us  what  the  laws 
are  of  a  true  epic  poem,  what  of  a  dramatic,  what  of  a  lyric, 
what  decorum  is,  which  is  the  grand  masterpiece  to  observe." 
For  further  note,  see  §  21,  B  2  Development  of  Poetics  in 
England. 

MONTAIGNE,  M.     Works.     Trans,  by  W.  Hazlitt.     Ed.  by  O. 
W.  Wight.     4  vols.     N.  Y.  :   1859. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  326,  327  Poetry. 

MOON,  G.  W.     What  is  Poetry  ?     Trans.    Royal  Soc.  of  Lit. 
2d  Ser.,  12  :  173. 

A  curiosity  of  literature.  The  writer  illustrates  famous  defi- 
nitions of  poetry  by  citations  from  his  own  poems. 

MORRIS,   G.   S.     British   Thought    and   Thinkers.      Chicago  : 
1880. 

Pp.  80-113  William  Shakespeare. 

Professor  Morris  illustrates  by  a  study  of  Shakespeare  the 
relation  of  poetry  to  philosophy.  Philosophy  is  the  theory  of 
life ;  poetry,  the  exposition  of  life.  With  regard  to  insight, 
philosopher  and  poet  are  brothers,  the  former  explicitly  con- 
scious of  the  meaning  of  the  vision,  the  latter  not,  —  a  relative 
difference.  The  philosopher  demonstrates  the  truth  ;  the  poet 
envisages.  The  poet  is  nature's  instrument,  a  seer,  not  a 
creator  of  new  truth.  He  is  universal  because  he  reports  the 
intrinsically  real.  He  creates  only  the  form  of  that  which  he 


334  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

tells.     He  has  the  substance  of  the  philosopher,  but  he  sings 
uplifted  by  his  message,  not  held  down  by  its  weight. 

NEWMAN,  F.  W.     Miscellanies.     3  vols.     Lond.  :    1869-89. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  65-145  Lectures  on  Poetry.     See  §  23. 
NEWMAN,  J.  H.    Essays,  Critical  and  Historical.    2d.  ed.    2  vols. 
Lond.:   1872. 

Vol.  I  Poetry  with  reference  to  Aristotle's  Poetics. 

NEWMAN,  J.  H.     Essay  on  Poetry,  with  reference  to  Aristotle's 
Poetics.     Ed.  by  A.  S.  Cook.     Boston  :   1891. 

PATER,  VV.     Appreciations.     Lond. :  1889. 

The  theory  of  poetry  advanced  by  Wordsworth  is  shrewdly 
and  sympathetically  discussed.  The  articles  on  Aesthetic  Poetry, 
p.  213,  and  on  Rossetti,  p.  228,  contain  a  clever  determination 
of  the  merits  of  the  pre-Raphaelite  School ;  the  Postscript, 
pp.  243-264,  states  the  differentiae  of  Classicism  and  Roman- 
ticism. 

PEACOCK,  T.  L.     Works.     3  vols.     Lond.  :   1875. 

Vol.  Ill,  pp.  324-338  The  Four  Ages  of  Poetry.  The  article 
may  also  be  found  in  Cook's  edition  of  Shelley's  Defense  of 
Poetry.  See  '  Shelley  '  below. 

PERRY,  T.  S.     English  Literature  in  the  Eighteenth  Century. 
N.  Y.  :  1883. 

Pp.  205,  206  The  Definition  of  Poetry. 

PHELPS,   W.   L.     The   Beginnings   of   the   English    Romantic 
Movement.     Boston :   1894. 

PLATO.     The  Dialogues  of  Plato. 

See  Index  to  the  second  edition  of  Jowett's  Translation  (by  E. 
Abbott.  Oxford:  1875),  under  Poetry  and  Poets.  The  follow- 
ing passages  are  of  especial  interest  :  Rep.  2  :  363,  377  ;  3  :  392, 
394;  10:595,  605-607;  Laws,  2:656-669;  3--39I-398'  682> 
700;  7:801,  811-817;  8:568,  801,829;  9:858;  10:601-605; 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  335 

1  1  :  935  ;  14  :  967  ;  Protagoras,  pp.  325,  326,  347  ;  Ion,  pp.  532- 
534  ;  Laches,  p.  183;  Apology,  p.  22;  Gorgias,  p.  502  ;  Lysis, 
pp.  212,  214;  Symposium,  p.  205.  See  also  under  Plato,  §  9, 
on  Imitation,  Representation,  Creation,  etc. 

POE,  E.  A.     Works.     Ed.  by  J.  H.  Ingram.     4  vols.     Edinb.  : 


Vol.    Ill,  pp.    197-219  The   Poetic   Principle,  pp.   219-265  The 
Rationale  of  Verse,  pp.  266-278  The  Philosophy  of  Composition. 

Poe  distinguishes  between  the  "poetry  of  words"  and  the 
general  poetic  faculty  whether  merely  potential,  or  expressed 
in  the  other  arts.  The  poetry  of  words  he  defines  as  the  "  rhyth- 
mical creation  of  beauty."  The  sole  arbiter  of  poetry  is  Taste. 
The  dissertation  on  the  poetic  principle  is  apparently  luminous, 
but  the  lights  are  shifting  and  uncertain.  On  the  Rationale  of 
Verse,  see  below,  §  23. 

PRICKARD,  A.  O.     Aristotle  on   the  Art  of  Poetry.     N.  Y.  : 

1891. 

The  aim  of  the  writer  is  to  present  a  clear  and  popular  expo- 
sition of  the  contents  of  the  Poetics.  The  definition  of  tragedy, 
the  problem  of  catharsis,  and  other  mooted  points  in  that 
treatise  are  taken  up  and  handled  in  a  straightforward  and 
scholarly  manner.  The  notes  are  of  especial  value. 

PUTTENHAM,  CEO.    .The  Arte  of  English  Poesie.     Engl.  Re- 
prints. .  .  .     Ed.  by  E.  Arber.     Lond.  :  1869. 

See  §  21,  B  2,  and  §  24,  B  2. 
QUINET,  EDGAR.     CEuvres  completes.     30  vols.     Paris. 

Vol.  IX  De  1'histoire  de  la  poesie. 

RAYMOND,  G.  L.     Poetry  as  a  Representative   Art.     N.   Y.  : 
1886. 

ROSENKRANZ,  K.     Die  Poesie  und  ihre  Geschichte.     Konigsb.  : 
1855- 

See  for  notice,  §  21, 


336  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

RUSKIN,  J.     Modern  Painters.     (See  §  8.) 

For  the  definition  of  poetry,  see  vol.  Ill,  pp.  10-12,  22; 
vol.  V,  pp.  163,  1 66  et  seq.  Ruskin's  peculiar  use  of  the  word 
poetry  as  common  to  all  the  arts  is  explained  in  vol.  I,  p.  8  ; 
vol.  Ill,  p.  13. 

SCHERER,  EDM.      Eludes  critiques  sur  la  litte'rature  contem- 
poraine.     5  vols.     Paris  :   1863-89. 
Vol.  IV,  pp.  25-34  L'avenir  de  la  poesie. 

SCHERER,    WILHELM.      Poetik.       Hrsg.    von    R.    M.    Meyer. 
Berlin:   1888. 
See  §  21,  B  3. 

SCHILLER,  J.  C.  F.  The  Aesthetical  and  Philosophical  Essays. 
Trans,  from  the  German.  Being  vol.  VIII  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Edition  of  Schiller's  Works.  Boston  :  1884. 

Pp.  5-32  Introduction;  pp.  135-148  The  Sublime;  pp.  149-174 

The  Pathetic ;   pp.  254-260   The  Vulgar   in    Works  of  Art ; 

pp.    261-268    Detached    Reflections    on    Aesthetic    Questions; 

pp  269-338  On  Simple  and  Sentimental  Poetry ;  pp.  339—367 

On  the  Stage  and  on  Tragedy.     In  general,  pp.  33-125  On  the 

Aesthetic  Education  of  Man;  pp.  126-378  Aesthetical  Essays. 

The  Introduction  gives  a  painstaking  and  profitable  though 

not  very  lucid  outline  of  Schiller's  system  of  aesthetics  and  his 

indebtedness  to  Lessing,  Winckelmann,  and  Kant.     From  the 

paper   entitled    Detached    Reflections,   etc.,    the    student   will 

obtain  a  fundamental  notion  of   Schiller's  theory  concerning 

the  relation  of  the  good,  the  agreeable,  the  sublime,  and  the 

beautiful   to  Art  (adapted   from   Kant's  Kritik   der  Urtheils- 

kraft).     The  special  uses  of  terror  and  grandeur  are  illustrated 

by  reference  to  Greek  tragedy.     The   essay  on    the  Sublime 

affirms  that  if  it  were  not  for  the  beautiful  the  strife  between 

sense  and  reason  could  not  be  allayed  ;  if  it  were  not  for  the 

sublime,  we  should  be  wedded  by  beauty  to  the  things  of  this 

world  (for  the  sublime  adds  dignity  to  life)  ;  if  it  were  not  for 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  337 

the  pathetic,  the  sublime  could  not  be  elicited,  nor  tested,  nor 
represented.  All  these  aesthetic  values  are  prerequisite  to 
poetry.  In  the  essay  on  the  Pathetic  it  is  shown  that  the 
pathetic  has  aesthetic  value  only  in  as  far  as  it  is  sublime  ; 
that  it  requires  two  conditions,  suffering  and  moral  freedom, 
and  that  without  the  latter  it  becomes  cheap.  Although  the 
poet  may  present  models  of  morality,  it  is  not  his  purpose  to 
inculcate  patriotism  or  temperance  or  industry,  but  to  affect  the 
heart.  Thus  he  accomplishes  by  indirection  what  as  an  imme- 
diate end  he  would  certainly  fail  of.  The  limits  and  use  of  the 
commonplace  with  respect  to  plastic  art  and  poetry  are  discussed 
in  the  essay  on  the  Vulgar.  The  best,  however,  of  these  essays 
is  that  entitled  On  Simple  and  Sentimental  Poetry.  It  points 
out  the  contrast  between  the  poetry  of  the  child  (simple)  and 
the  poetry  of  reflection  (sentimental).  The  former  with  its 
realism  is  the  poetry  of  the  Greeks ;  the  latter  with  its  impossi- 
ble but  noble  idealism  belongs  to  the  Moderns  ;  and  the  latter 
would  seem  to  be  more  truly  in  sympathy  with  nature  than  the 
former.  Passing  to  the  sentimental  poet,  the  author  says  that 
he  may  represent  the  impression  which  objects  have  made  upon 
him  by  way  either  of  ridiculing  the  real  aspect  of  them,  or  of 
emphasizing  the  ideal.  The  former  is  satirical  poetry  ;  it  reveals 
the  chasm  separating  the  real  from  the  ideal ;  it  includes  the 
satire  of  pathos  or  of  vengeance  (Juvenal,  Swift,  etc.),  and  the 
satire  of  mirth  (Cervantes,  Fielding,  etc.).  The  latter  is  elegiac 
poetry ;  it  blends  nature  and  the  ideal  in  the  product  of  imagi- 
nation ;  it  -includes  the  elegy  of  sadness,  nature  lost,  the  ideal 
unattained  (Ovid,  Rousseau,  von  Kleist,  etc.),  and  the  idyl, — 
nature  and  ideal  realized.  The  author  invests  the  literary 
terms  here  used  with  the  widest  possible  significance. 

For  the  articles  especially  devoted  to  Tragedy,  see  §§  38, 
41,  47.  For  general  bibliography  the  following  may  be  con- 
sulted :  Sammtliche  Werke  (12  vols.  in  6.  Stuttgart  :  1847), 
Bd.  V,  pp.  375-383  Ueber  den  Gebrauch  des  Chors  in  der 


338  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

Tragodie,  Bd.  XI,  pp.  383-483,  Bd.  XII  Aesthetische  Schriften ; 
Sammtliche  Schriften,  Hrsg.  von  R.  Kohler  (15  vols.  in  17. 
Stuttgart :  1867-76),  Bd.  X  Aesthetische  Schriften,  Bd.  XIV, 
pp.  3-12  Ueber  den  Gebrauchdes  Chors  in  der  Tragodie  ;  The 
Aesthetic  Letters,  Essays,  and  the  Philosophical  Letters,  Trans, 
with  an  Introduction  by  J.  Weiss  (Boston  :  1845),  pp.  1-338 
(see  also  the  Introduction)  ;  Works :  Historical  Dramas,  etc. 
(Trans.  Lond.  :  1854),  pp.  439-444  On  the  Use  of  the  Chorus 
in  Tragedy;  Jas.  Sime,  Schiller  (Phila.  :  1882),  pp.  120-126  ; 
R.  Zimmermann,  Versuch  einer  Schillerschen  Aesthetik  (Berlin  : 
1889). 

SCHMIDT,  J.  H.  H.     Die  Kunstformen  d.  Griechischen  Poesie 
u.  ihre  Bedeutung.     4  vols.     Leipz.  :   1868-72. 

SCHOPENHAUER,  A.     World  as  Will  and  as  Idea.     Transl.  by 
R.  B.  Haldane  and  J.  Kemp.     3  vols.     Lond.  :   1883. 
Vol.  I,  pp.  313-340;  vol.  II,  pp.  200-219 The  Aesthetics  of  Poetry. 

To  appreciate  Schopenhauer's  conception  of  poetry  it  is 
necessary  to  read  his  statement  of  the  Object  of  Art,  vol.  I, 
p.  219.  Attempting  to  base  his  theory  of  the  Idea  as  realiza- 
tion of  the  Will  upon  Plato  and  Kant,  he  proceeds  to  establish 
a  hierarchy  of  the  arts  as  more  or  less  perfect  manifestations 
of  the  Idea.  The  idea  that  is  objectified  in  the  plastic  arts  is 
the  human  form  ;  the  idea  that  is  manifested  in  poetry  is  human 
action.  Poetry  is  the  highest  of  the  arts  whose  existence 
depends  upon  the  manifestation  of  the  Idea.  But  the  climax 
of  all  art  is  music,  for  it  presents  not  ideas  but  the  Will  itself 
(back  of  ideas).  Passing  to  poetry  by  way  of  a  discussion  of 
the  unsuitableness  of  allegory  in  plastic  art,  and  its  place  in  the 
art  of  language,  Schopenhauer  grades  the  types  of  poetry 
according  to  their  objectivity.  .Tragedy,  in  which  the  writer 
forgets  himself  utterly,  and,  as  if  "  inspired,"  preaches  the  "  will 
to  die,"  is  the  highest  type  of  poetry. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  339 

The  remarks  on  the  relation  of  verse  to  poetry ;  of  poetry  to 
history  ;  of  classic  to  romantic  poetry ;  and  of  ancient  tragedy 
to  modern,  are  fresh  and  suggestive.  The  reader  who  picks 
his  way  with  discrimination  through  aphorisms  and  fallacies 
will  find  in  Schopenhauer  no  insignificant  contribution  to 
poetics. 

SCHOPENHAUER,   A.     The    Art  of  Literature.     Trans,    by   B. 
Saunders.     Lond.  :   1891. 

SCUDDER,  VIDA  D.     And.  Rev.  8:    225,   351   The   Effect   of 
the  Scientific  Temper  in  Modern  Poetry. 

SELKIRK,    J.    B.     Ethics   and    Aesthetics  of   Modern    Poetry. 
Lond.  :   1878. 

The  chapters  are  principally  from  Blackwood 's  Magazine  and 
Cornhill,  They  treat  somewhat  discursively  of  the  position 
assumed  by  modern  poetry  in  the  face  of  modern  scepticism, 
modern  creeds,  modern  mysticism,  aesthetics,  and  culture.  The 
poets  most  carefully  considered  are  Clough,  Swinburne,  Arnold, 
Tennyson,  and  Browning.  The  author's  style  is  marked  by 
grace  and  perspicacity. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.     Studies  in  Philosophy  and  Poetry.      N.  Y.  : 
1872.     Lond.  :   1878. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.     The  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature.     Lond. : 
1877. 

SHAIRP,  J.  C.     Aspects  of  Poetry.     Boston  :   1882. 

The  Aspects  of  Poetry  is  a  very  important  book.  In  the 
chapter  entitled  The  Province  of  Poetry  (pp.  1-30)  is  a  discus- 
sion of  the  unconsciousness  of  the  poetic  impulse,  of  the  part 
played  by  imagination,  and  of  the  purely  aesthetic,  and  indirect 
ethical,  purpose.  The  author  is  not  in  doubt  concerning  the 
theory  of  moral  indifference  in  art.  He  correlates  high  poeti- 


340  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  20. 

cal  effect  and  high  moral  ideal.  (Cf.  Arnold's  "  criticism  of 
life.")  In  pp.  56-104,  the  Spiritual  Side  of  Poetry,  and  the 
Poet  as  a  Revealer,  the  author  emphasizes  the  ethical  aspect  of 
the  art.  Compare  Wordsworth's  statement  of  the  poetic  or 
prophetic  function.  The  chapter  on  Style  in  Modern  English 
poetry  must  be  read  as  a  commentary  upon  Wordsworth's  Pref- 
aces. Compare  with  it,  Bagehot's  article  on  the  Pure,  the 
Ornate,  and  the  Grotesque.  In  Studies  in  Poetry,  the  essay 
on  Wordsworth,  The  Man  and  the  Poet,  throws  additional 
light  on  the  bases  and  functions  of  poetry.  The  volume  on 
the  Poetic  Interpretation  of  Nature  should  be  read  in  connection 
with  Professor  Veitch's  Nature  in  Scottish  poetry.  Together 
they  form  an  admirable  introduction  to  the  literary  history  of 
the  love  of  nature. 

SHELLEY,  P.  B.  Works.  Ed.  by  H.  B.  Forman.  8  vols. 
Lond.  :  1880. 

Vol.  VII,  pp.  99-144  Defense  of  Poetry,  pp.  145,  146  Three  Frag- 
ments on  Beauty. 

SHELLEY,  P.  B.  A  Defense  of  Poetry.  Ed.  by  A.  S.  Cook. 
Boston  :  1891.  (Contains  also  Peacock's  Four  Ages  of 
Poetry.) 

A  sympathetic  and  creative  rather  than  a  comprehensive  or 
an  analytic  discussion  of  the  subject.  The  interest  centres 
upon  the  educative,  legislative,  and  theological,  as  well  as  the 
artistic  function,  ascribed  to  the  poet  (vide  p.  104).  Con- 
sideration should  be  given  to  the  statement  that  although 
poetry  has  always  aimed  at  a  harmonious  recurrence  of  sound, 
still  "  the  distinction  between  poets  and  prose  writers  is  a  vulgar 
error";  also  to  the  explanation  (p.  109)  of  the  pleasure  which 
poetry  gives  to  maker  as  well  as  auditor  ;  also  to  the  alleged 
immorality  of  poetry,  to  the  poetic  quality  of  Christianity,  and 
to  the  so-called  definition  (p.  138),  '  Poetry  is  the  record  of  the 
best  and  happiest  moments  of  the  happiest  and  best  minds.' 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  341 

This  prose-poem  might  profitably  be  read  in  connection  with 
the  Ion,  the  Philebus,  the  Phaedrus,  and  the  Symposium  of 
Plato.  It  should  be  compared  with  Peacock's  Satirical  Four 
Ages  of  Poetry,  to  which,  in  Shelley's  words,  it  was  designed 
as  an  antidote. 

SIDNEY,  SIR  PHILIP.     Apologie  for  Poetrie.     Engl.  Reprints. 
...  Ed.  by  E.  Arber.     Lond.  :  1868. 

SIDNEY,  SIR  PHILIP.     The  Defense  of  Poesy.     Ed.  by  Albert 
S.  Cook.     Boston  :   1890. 

SIDNEY,  SIR  PHILIP.     The  Defense  of  Poesy.     Ed.  by  Evelyn 
S.  Shuckburgh.     (University  Press.)     Cambr.  :   1891. 

As  a  source  for.  the  history  of  English  Criticism,  and  one  of 
the  earliest  English  essays  characterized  by  philosophical  grasp 
and  scholarly  grace,  this  work  is  of  supreme  importance  (see 
§21,  B  2)  ;  as  an  authority  on  poetry  it  added  little  or  nothing 
to  what  had  been  said  by  the  critics  of  Greece  and  Rome,  save 
where  it  adapted  the  theories  of  contemporary  and  preceding 
Italian  critics.  In  connection  with  the  references  made  to 
Italian  criticism  in  Professor  Cook's  edition,  see  Mod.  Lang. 
Notes,  vol.  VI,  pp.  97-101.  While  according  due  homage  to 
Sidney,  the  poet  and  chevalier,  and  due  consideration  to  the 
idealism  of  his  poetic  theory,  critics  nowadays  turn  to  an 
aesthetic  more  scientific  than  could  be  known  to  the  Eliza- 
bethans —  a  system  based  upon  psychology  and  the  compara- 
tive study  of  literature  and  art.  For  an  interesting  comparison 
of  Sidney's  and  Aristotle's  poetics,  see  C.  Quossek's  Sidney's 
Defense  of  Poetry  u.  d.  Poetik  d.  Arist.  (Crefeld :  1880). 

SPIELHAGEN,  F.     Aus  meiner  Studienmappe.     Beitrage  zur  litt. 
Aesthetik  und  Kritik.     2.  Aufl.     Berlin  :  1891. 

Pp.  63-76  Wahrscheinlichkeit  in  der  Dichtung. 
Thinks  that  the  poet  by  the  exercise  of  despotic  power  should 
compel  improbabilities  to  work  his  purpose. 


342  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

STEDMAN,  EDMUND  C.     The  Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry. 
Boston  :  1892. 

Note  especially  the  part  played  by  "  Melancholia  "  in  modern 
poetry.  Careful  discrimination  is  made  between  poetry  which 
expresses  the  self-consciousness  of  the  author,  and  that  which 
represents  life  and  thought  apart  from  his  individuality.  The 
noblest  poetry  is  impersonal.  Poetry  is  defined  as  "  rhythmical, 
imaginative  language  expressing  the  invention,  taste,  thought, 
passion,  and  insight  of  the  human  soul." 

SUTERMEISTER,  O.    Leitfadcn  der  Poetik.    2.  verb.  Aufl.   Zurich: 
1874. 

See  for  notice,  §  21,  B  3. 

SWINBURNE,  A.  C.     igth  Century,  15  :  583,  764  Wordsworth 
and  Byron. 

A  combatant  in  the  Wordsworth-Byron-Shelley  controversy, 
"  who  desires  above  all  things  to  preserve  in  all  things  the 
golden  mean  of  scrupulous  moderation  "  ;  who  mildly  charac- 
terizes the  poetic  inspiration  of  Byron  as  a  "  drawling,  drag- 
gle-tailed drab  of  a  Muse,  moderately  censures  his  "  gasping, 
ranting,  wheezing,  broken-winded  verse,"  —  "  bristling  with 
every  sort  and  kind  of  barbarism  and  solecism,  not  to  speak  of 
its  tune  which  suggests  the  love-strains  of  a  baboon,"  —  and 
with  scrupulous  courtesy  reproaches  Matthew  Arnold  for  cast- 
ing the  shield  of  his  authority  over  such  "  unutterable  rubbish," 
instead  of  letting  it  "  rot."  The  author  deems  imagination 
and  harmony  the  primary  elements  of  poetry ;  requires  a  per- 
ceptible but  indefinable  charm  ;  and  exhorts  the  reader  not  to  be 
a  Wordsworthian,  —  though  it  is  better  to  be  a  Wordsworth ian 
than  a  Byronite.  As  for  himself,  he  prefers  the  "  nebulosity  of 
Shelley  at  his  cloudiest  to  the  raggedness  of  Wordsworth  at  his 
raggedest."  With  Swinburne's  indefinable  element  in  poetry 
may  be  compared  Gurney's  theory,  in  Tertium  Quid,  and 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  343 

Lowell's  definition,  in  Lecture  I  of  the  Lowell  Institute  Lectures 
on  the  English  Poets.     See  also  Swinburne's  William  Blake. 

THOREAU,  H.  D.  Concord  and  Merrimack  Rivers.  Boston  : 
1894. 

See  the  passage  beginning  p.  494.  "A  true  poem,"  says 
Thoreau,  "  is  distinguished  not  so  much  by  a  felicitous  expres- 
sion, or  any  thought  it  suggests,  as  by  the  atmosphere  which 
surrounds  it."  A  division  of  poetry  is  suggested. 

VIEHOFF,  H.  Die  Poetik  auf  der  Grundlage  der  Erfahrungs- 
seelenlehre.  Hrsg.  von  Victor  Kiy.  2  vols.  in  i.  Trier  : 
1888. 

The  value  of  this  work  is  not  yet  properly  appreciated  by 
English  students  of  aesthetics.  Laying  a  substantial  founda- 
tion in  the  Psychology  of  Aesthetics  (vol.  I,  Bk.  I),  the  author 
constructs  a  psychological  system  of  poetics.  He  describes 
skilfully  the  manner  in  which  poetry  satisfies  the  impulse  for 
pleasure.  Pleasure  he  defines  as  attaining  its  fulfilment  in 
the  happiness  of  the  species.  Cf.  with  Viehoff's  theory  that  of 
Dallas  mentioned  above. 

While  in  some  respects  Viehoff  gives  his  assent  to  the  aes- 
thetics of  Fechner,  he  differs  from  him  in  particulars,  as,  for 
instance,  on  the  principle  of  the  aesthetic  balancing  of  oppo- 
sites  (p.  217). 

Book  II  treats  of  Aesthetic  Laws  and  the  Means  of  Art. 
Vol.  II,  Bk.  I,  is  technical,  and  treats  of  the  Structure  of  Verse 
and  Strophe  ;  Bk.  II,  on  the  Theory  of  Types  in  Literature, 
most  directly  concerns  the  student  of  poetry.  Especially  note- 
worthy is  chap.  I,  pp.  461-469. 

WACKERNAGEL,  W.  Poetik,  Rhetorik,  und  Stilistik.  Hrsg.  von 
L.  Sieber.  Halle  :  1873.  See  §  21,  B  j. 

WAGNER,  J.  J.     Dichterschule.     3.  Aufl.     Ulm  :  1850. 


344  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  20. 

WARD,  T.  H.  (Ed.)  English  Poets  :  Selections,  with  critical 
introductions  by  various  authors,  and  a  general  introduc- 
tion by  Matthew  Arnold.  4  vols.  Lond.  and  N.  Y.  : 
1881. 

WARTON,  THOMAS.  History  of  English  Poetry.  Ed.  by  VV.  C. 
Hazlitt.  4  vols.  Lond.:  1871. 

See  Courthope's  Liberal  Movement,  p.  121. 

WATTS,  THEODORE.  Article  '  Poetry  '  in  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica,  gth  ed. 

For  a  general  survey  of  the  history  of  poetry  and  of  the  more 
important  problems  of  aesthetics  involved,  this  article  is  espe- 
cially commended  to  the  student.  The  following  questions  are 
suggested :  Is  the  distinction  made  by  Mr.  Watts  between 
relative  and  absolute  vision  satisfactory  ?  Does  it  mean  merely 
that  in  degree  some  men  are  more  poetic  than  others  ?  Do  the 
examples  cited  of  egoistic  imagination  and  dramatic  imagina- 
tion emphasize  the  distinction  that  Mr.  Watts  would  make? 
Does  the  fact  that  the  dramatis  persona  occasionally  expresses 
sentiments  which  any  one  else  might  express  diminish  the 
characteristic  of  the  dramatis  persona  on  betoken  lack  of  insight 
on  the  part  of  the  dramatist  ?  Does  not  one's  estimate  of  the 
nis ion  displayed  in  a  drama  or  an  epic  depend  upon  the  relativity 
or  absoluteness  of  one's  own  aesthetic  vision  ? 

Mr.  Watts's  criticism  of  Hegel's  statement  of  the  destiny  of 
art  tends  to  confuse  the  general  with  the  absolute.  But  leav- 
ing the  question  of  comparative  poetic  vision  on  one  side, 
the  statement  of  the  nature  of  poetry,  of  its  relation  to  music 
and  the  other  arts,  and  of  the  importance  of  its  kinds,  can  hardly 
be  surpassed  for  simplicity  and  clearness. 

WEBBE,  WM.    A  Discourse  of  English  Poetrie.    Engl.  Reprints. 
.  .  .     Ed.  by  E.  Arber.     Lond. :   1870. 
See  §  24,  B  2. 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  345 

WOLFF,  EUG.     Zeitschrift  f.  vergl.  Litteratur,  6  :  423  Vorstudien 

zur  Poetik. 

Outlines  a  scheme  for  an  inductive  poetics  under  the  fol- 
lowing heads:  i.  Methodik.  2.  (a)  Theomorphismus  ;  (<£)  He- 
roomorphismus  ;  (f)  Anthropomorphismus,  Physiomorphismus 
und  Ergebnis.  3.  Zur  Entwickelungsgeschichte  des  Dramas  : 
(a)  Tragodie  ;  (<£)  Komodie.  4.  Wirkung  der  Poesie. 

WORDSWORTH,  W.  Prose  works.  Ed.  by  A.  B.  Grosart.  3  vols. 
Lond. :  1876. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  77-214  Essays,  Letters,  and  Notes,  elucidatory  and 
confirmatory  of  his  Poems. 

WORDSWORTH,  W.  Prefaces  and  Essays  on  Poetry  (1798- 
1845).  Ed.  by  A.  J.  George.  Boston  :  1892. 

Of  these  articles  the  more  important  are  the  Prefaces  to  the 
Lyrical  Ballads  (1800,  enlarged  1802),  Appendix  on  Poetic 
Diction  (1802),  Preface  to  Poems  (1815,  Powers  requisite  for 
the  Poet  and  the  Kinds  of  Poetry),  and  the  Essay  supple- 
mentary to  the  Preface  of  1815  (Sketch  of  English  Poetry). 

The  long-continued  controversy  concerning  the  doctrine  and 
practice  of  Wordsworth  in  poetry  was  originated  by  the  preface 
to  the  second  edition  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads.  The  student  of 
modern  English  poetics  should  make  a  careful  examination 
of  Wordsworth's  theories  in  connection  (i)  with  his  poetry  ; 
(2)  with  the  criticism  passed  by  others  upon  both  his  poetry 
and  his  theory  ;  (3)  with  the  poetics  of  his  English  and  German 
contemporaries  and  successors.  Note  especially  his  advocacy 
of  the  poetic  use  of  the  language  which  springs  from  states  of 
vivid  emotion,  his  theory  of  the  choice  of  commonplace  subjects 
and  the  way  to  present  them  as  novel,  his  remarks  concerning 
the  lethargy  of  the  fashionable  mind  in  matters  of  imagination, 
the  soil  from  which  essential  passions  best  spring,  and  the 
poetic  necessity  of  realizing  the  ideal  in  nature  rather  than  of 
idealizing  the  real. 


346  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  '[§20. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  more  important  contemporary 
reviews  of  Wordsworth's  theory  of  poetry  :  Edinb.  Rev.  2  :  283, 
6  :  i,  7  :  16,  ii  :  214,  19  :  270,  466,  24  :  i,  25  :  355,  27  :  58,  277, 
28  :  488,  37  :  449  ;  Blackw.  i  :  261,  2  :  201,  5  :  130,  26  :  453  ; 
Quarterly  Rev.  14  :  201,  52  1317  ;  Fraser's  6  :  607,  42  :  119  ; 
Dublin  Univ.  5  :  680  ;  North  Am.  Rev.  18  :  356.  See  also 
Coleridge,  Biographia  Literaria. 

See  notes  on  Arnold,  Austin,  Bagehot,  Courthope,  Gurney, 
Pater,  Swinburne.  See  also  Brunswick's  Wordsworth's  Theorie 
der  Poetischen  Kunst  (Progr.  Halle  :  1884). 

MISCELLANEOUS  REFERENCES.  —  Of  magazine  articles,  not 
already  mentioned,  the  following  deserve  attention :  Vida  D. 
Scudder,  Andover  Rev.  8:225,  351  Effect  of  the  Scientific 
Temper  in  Modern  Poetry ;  Blackwood,  6  : 363  Progressive 
Changes  in  Poetical  Style,  n  :  153  How  far  is  Poetry  an  Art  ? 
27  :  706  Art  of  Poetry,  38  :  829  Philosophy  of  Poetry,  132  :  158 
Poetry  of  the  Future  ;  Wm.  Knight,  Brit.  Q.  (Am.  ed.)  57  :  92 
A  Theory  of  Poetry  ;  E.  Dowden,  Contenip.  2  :  535  Poetical 
Feeling  for  Nature  (cf.  his  Studies  in  Literature) ;  V.  Lee, 
Contemp.  39  :  682  Morality  in  Poetry  (Repr.  in  Belcaro)  ;  F.  T. 
Palgrave,  Fortn.  12:  163  Scientific  Study  of  Poetry;  J.  A. 
Symonds,  Fortn.  32  :  686  M.  Arnold  on  Poetry  ;  P.  Bourget, 
Fortn.  49:  568  Science  et  Poesie;  E.  Gosse,  Forum,  7:175 
What  is  a  Great  Poet?  Herrig's  Archiv,  10  :  112  Sprache  d. 
Poesie  u.  Poesie  d.  Sprache,  45  :  35  Ueber  d.  aesthet.-psychol. 
Beurtheilung  e.  Dichters,  45  :  58  Ueber  Wesen  u.  Zweck  d. 
Kunst  u.  d.  Poesie  ;  A.  Bettelheim,  Nation  (Berlin),  1891,  p.  746 
Eine  neue  Theorie  der  Dichtkunst ;  A.  Tilley,  Macm.  44:  268 
Two  Theories  of  Poetry,  53  :  184  The  Poetic  Imagination  ; 
E.  A.  Sonnenschein,  Macm.  53  :  5  Culture  and  Science  ;  F.  T. 
Palgrave,  Macm.  53  : 332  Province  and  Study  of  Poetry ;  F.  T. 
Whittaker,  Macm.  53  :  428  Musical  and  Picturesque  Elements 
in  Poetry;  M.-J.  Guyau,  Rev.  Philos.  17  :  179,  258  L'Esthe"tique 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  347 

du  vers  moderne  ;  D.  Tarrozo,  Rev.  Philos.  18  :  232  A  Poesia 
Philosophica  (Rev.  by  B.  Perez)  ;  Felix  Klein,  Le  Correspon- 
dant,  1 20  :  641  La  poesie  et  le  temps  present ;  H.  Roettiker, 
Zeitschrift  f.  vergl.  Lift.  4:17  Zur  Lehre  von  den  Darstellungs- 
mitteln  in  der  Poesie  ;  Veit  Valentin,  Zeitschrift  f.  vergl.  Litt. 
5  : 35  Poetische  Gattungen  ;  Walt  Whitman,  No.  Am.  Rev. 
132  :  195  Poetry  of  the  Future  ;  C.  Thomas,  Open  Court, 
3:1727  Poetry  and  Science,  Forum,  25:503  Have  We  Still 
Need  of  Poetry? 

Most  of  the  following  programmes  and  dissertations  are  men- 
tioned by  Hermann  Varnhagen  in  his  Systematisches  Verzeich- 
niss  (Anhang  to  Supplement  to  Schmitz,  Encycl.  d.  philol. 
Studiums),  p.  18  :  H.  Wiirtzer,  De'origine  et  natura  poeseos 
(Gott.  :  1780)  ;  P.  Weierstrass,  De  poesis  natura  et  partitione 
(Deutsche  Crone  Gymn.  :  1851)  ;  H.  Schreiber,  Allgemeine 
Grundsatze  d.  Dichtkunst(nach  Horaz)  (Freiburg  i.  Br.:  1823)  ; 
J.  J.  Dielschneider,  Ueber  die  Poesie  (Koln  :  1839)  ;  B. 
Piringer,  Ueber  Wesen  u.  Bedeutung  d.  Poesie  (Kremsmiin- 
ster :  1851);  G.  Jauss,  Der  ideale  Gehalt  d.  Poesie  als  bilden- 
der  Element  (Oberschiitzen  :  1868) ;  Th.  Schonborn,  Ueber  d. 
Ursprung  d.  Naturpoesie  (Breslau :  1873);  Koster,  Kurze 
Darstellung  d.  Dichtungsarten  (Barmen  :  1837)  5  C.  N.  Sacher, 
Die  Grundformen  d.  Poesie,  u.  s.  w.  (Brtix. :  1862)  ;  Valentin, 
Der  Rhythmus  als  Grundlage  einer  wissensch.  Poetik  (Frank- 
furt a.  M.  :  1870)  ;  Rud.  Eckart,  Die  didaktische  Poesie,  ihr 
Wesen  u.  ihre  Vertreter  (Hannover  :  1891). 

For  a  few  other  definitions  of  poetry,  the  following  may 
be  consulted  : 

W.  C.  Bryant,  Writings  (Ed.  by  Godwin.  2  vols.  N.  Y.  : 
1884;  vol.  I,  pp.  3-34  Lectures  on  Poetry,  pp.  57-67  Trisyl- 
labic Feet  in  Iambic  Measure),  vol.  I,  p.  6  (Poetry  selects  and 
arranges  the  symbols  of  thought  in  such  a  way  as  to  excite  the 
mind  most  powerfully  and  delightfully)  ;  Alex.  Bain,  Engl. 
Comp.  and  Rhet,  p.  257  (Poetry  operates  by  means  of  thought 


348  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§20. 

conveyed  in  language)  ;  H.  Blair,  Lectures  on  Rhetoric  and 
Belles  Lettres  (Phil. :  1860),  p.  421  (Poetry  is  the  language  of 
passion,  of  enlivened  imagination  formed  ordinarily  into  regular 
numbers)  ;  J.  Bascom,  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  p.  33  (Poetry,  in 
its  strictly  characteristic  form,  is  emotional  conception  expressed 
in  metrical  language)  ;  Sir  Redmond  Barry,  Dublin  Afternoon 
Lectures:  On  Music  and  Poetry,  p.  15  (Poetry  creates  from 
intellectual  materials  by  imaginative  effort  that  which  arouses 
aesthetic  emotion  of  any  kind,  but  it  adorns  the  creation  so 
that  it  captivates  the  senses,  surprises  the  mind,  agitates  the 
passions.  It  may  impersonate  the  ideal,  or  endow  with  life  the 
inanimate)  ;  Byron,  Don  Juan  (Poetry  is  but  passion)  ;  G.  W. 
Cook,  Poets  and  Problems,  p.  25  (A  restatement  of  the  views  of 
Wordsworth  and  Coleridge) ;  T.  Carlyle,  Essay  on  Goethe, 
Heroes  and  Hero-Worship  (in  the  former  essay  Carlyle  shows 
that  "the  true  poet  is  ever,  as  of  old,  the  Seer," — a  thought 
elaborated  by  Browning  in  his  article  on  Shelley,  —  in  the 
latter  essay  Carlyle  calls  poetry  musical  thought,  and  explains 
music  as  that  which  penetrates  the  harmony  of  the  idea  and 
expresses  it  in  sound) ;  Sir  K.  Digby,  Two  Treatises  on  the 
Nature  of  Bodies  and  the  Nature  of  Man's  Soul  (Lond. :  1658. 
A  quaint  and  delightful  passage  on  Poetry  in  the  second  Trea- 
tise, p.  35)  ;  Dublin  University  Mag.  45  :  471  De  Re  Poetica 
(Poetry  is  a  longing  for  a  more  excellent  beauty  than  the  things 
which  are  seen  can  supply,  an  upward  and  outward  instinct 
uttered  by  gifted  persons  in  musical  and  modulated  words,  — 
gently  delighting  itself  and  others  by  its  creations);  H.  Heine, 
Die  Romantische  Schule  (Trans,  as  The  Romantic  School,  by 
S.  F.  Fleischmann.  N.  Y.  :  1882.  According  to  Heine  the 
poet  understands  the  symbol  of  religion  and  the  abstract  idea 
of  philosophy,  but  the  religions  and  philosophy  do  not  under- 
stand the  poet.  The  poet  resembles  God  in  creating  characters 
after  his  own  image.  See  Scintillations,  pp.  84,  120  et  seq^)\ 
Geo.  Harris,  The  Theory  of  the  Arts  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1869), 


§  20.]  REFERENCES.  349 

see  vol.  I,  Poetry  (It  arises  by  a  process  of  selection  from  the 
commonplaces  of  thought  and  expression.  It  excels  in  sugges- 
tion; painting  in  representation.  Its  object  is  to  inform  and  to 
delight)  ;  "R.  G.  Hazard,  Essays  on  Language,  p.  30  (Poetry  is 
regarded  as  the  '  language  of  ideality  ')  ;  Sir  John  Lubbock, 
Essay  on  Poetry  (Poetry  lengthens  life  by  creating  for  us  Time, 
which  is  the  succession  of  ideas,  not  of  minutes)  ;  Longfellow, 
Essay  on  the  Defense  of  Poetry,  in  his  Prose  Works  (Poetry,  a 
longing  for  the  ideal ;  the  spirit  of  the  age  itself  embodied  in 
the  forms  of  language  and  addressing  the  external  as  well  as 
the  internal  sense)  ;  E.  R.  Sill,  Atlantic,  56  :  665  Principles 
of  Criticism  (Poetry  is  the  expression  in  rhythmic  language  of 
some  serious  thought  by  the  suggestion  of  that  thought  through 
the  imagination)  ;  E.  P.  Whipple.  Essays  and  Reviews,  vol.  I, 
p.  300  et  seq.  (Poetry  is  the  protest  of  genius  against  the 
unreality  of  actual  life.  It  perceives  what  is  real  and  permanent. 
It  actualizes  real  life  for  the  imagination  in  forms  of  grandeur 
and  beauty  corresponding  to  the  essential  truth  of  things.  It 
is  the  record  left  by  the  greatest  men  of  any  of  their  aspirations 
after  a  truth  and  reality  above  their  age)  ;  E.  C.  Moyse,  Poetry 
as  a  Fine  Art  (Lond.  :  1883). 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  HISTORICAL  STUDY  OF  POETRY. 

§21,  A.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter  to  indicate  some  of 
the  methods  and  materials  that  may  be  useful  in  the  investiga- 
tion of  poetry  in  its  historical  development.1  The  suggestions 
made  may,  with  the  proper  modifications,  be  applied  to  the 
study  of  literary  history  in  general. 

No  treatise  in  English  covers  this  subject.  On  the  con- 
ception of  literary  history  and  its  boundaries,  the  student  should 
consult  Paul's  Grundriss  der  germanischen  Philologie,  i :  215- 
217,  and  Boeckh's  Encyklopadie  der  philologischen  Wissen- 
schaften,  p.  648  et  seq.  The  authorities  on  method  are  cited  in 
various  places  in  this  chapter. 

i.  The  AIM  of  the  historian  is  to  determine  the  facts  in  the 
division  of  literature  under  investigation,  and  their  relation  to 
each  other,  to  discover  their  characteristics,  and  record  the 
results  obtained  (Korting,  Encykl.  d.  roman  Philol.  2  :  482). 
Whatever  the  historian's  conception  of  poetry,  its  significance 
or  its  boundaries,  he  must  include  in  his  intention  the  following 
objects  :  to  determine  the  literary  productions  necessary  to  the 
complete  understanding  of  the  period,  type,  or  movement  con- 
cerned, and  to  test  the  genuineness  of  these  productions  ;  to 
interpret  each  in  the  light  of  its  special  purpose,  its  author's 
individuality,  and  its  social  and  cultural  antecedents  ;  to  con- 
sider it  in  its  relation  to  its  environment  (epoch  and  country)  ; 

1  For  guidance  in  the  study  of  the  Origins  of  Poetry,  the  student  is  referred  to  the 
chapter  on  Comparative  Literature,  §  18,  2,  above. 


§21.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  351 

to  ascertain  its  historical  position  and  its  influence  upon  life  and 
thought,  especially  its  influence  upon  the  literary  organism  of 
which  it  is  a  factor  ;  to  gauge  its  originality  as  a  work  of  art,  and, 
finally,  to  estimate  its  relative  or  absolute  aesthetic  significance. 
2.  There  are  three  ways  of  APPROACHING  THE  SUBJECT  : 
the  Chronological  (or  linear),  the  Encyclopedic,  and  the  Cyclic. 
(See  Boeckh,  Encykl.  d.  philol.  Wiss.,  pp.  46,  47,  for  a  discus- 
sion of  the  first  and  third.)  None  of  these  alone  is  sufficient  ; 
but  in  its  own  place,  in  connection  with  and  dependence  upon 
the  others,  each  is  indispensable.  The  first  is  the  method  of 
experience,  the  manner  in  which  the  investigator  would  natu- 
rally approach  an  unfamiliar  aggregate  of  materials.  When  the 
subject  is  a  section  of  literary  history,  the  details  —  the  produc- 
tions that  constitute  it  —  must  first,  of  course,  be  arranged  in 
chronological  order.  And  in  so  far  as  the  student  confines  his 
examination  of  the  materials  to  external  criticism,  remembers 
that  the  order  determined  is  necessarily  experimental,  and  resists 
the  temptation  of  arguing  post  hoc,  ergo  propter  hoc,  the  investi- 
gation is  of  fundamental  importance.  Ground  has  been  broken, 
the  first  stakes  have  been  driven,  the  element  of  sequence  in 
time  has  been  established.  But  the  student  will  not  rest  satis- 
fied with  this  kind  of  criticism.  If  he  has  noticed  the  nature  and 
contents  of  the  materials,  he  detects,  or  thinks  that  he  detects, 
resemblances  and  differences  between  production  and  produc- 
tion, characteristics  suggestive  of  a  classification  according  to 
kinds.  The  literature  of  a  nation  or  of  a  period  appears,  for 
instance,  to  fall  into  forms  or  moulds  :  epic,  lyric,  dramatic,  etc. 
The  method  of  approach  then  becomes  encyclopedic :  a  judicial, 
not  an  historical,  survey  of  the  field ;  and  it  has  in  view  to 
discover  similarities  of  characteristic,  of  aspect,  or  merely  of 
apparent  (a  priori}  interrelation,  and  on  that  basis  to  form 
generalizations  concerning  the  kinds  possible,  and  the  laws  that 
govern  each  as  distinct  from  the  others.  Unless  such  a  survey, 
whether  made  at  first-hand  or  not,  is  systematic,  the  conclusions 


352  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

will  be  inadequate,  superficial,  or  confused.  But  if  the  review, 
even  when  dependent  upon  guides,  resumes,  and  other  authorities, 
is  conducted  with  logical  system  •  if  the  materials  and  hypotheses 
thus  gleaned  are  frequently  tested  by  inspection  of  the  originals, 
the  results  of  the  study  will  be  useful.  They  are  tentative,  but 
suggestive  so  far  as  they  go.  A  first-hand  encyclopedic  inves- 
tigation would  be  preferable,  but  life  is  short.  The  element 
of  resemblance  has  been  recognized,  a  provisional  cross-section 
of  the  subject  has  been  made,  a  method  of  logical  division 
established  ;  and  it  would  seem  that  the  characteristics  of  lit- 
erary genera  might  be  formulated.  But,  since  the  hypoth- 
eses of  the  encyclopedic  method  are  largely  a  priori,  and  since 
the  process  treats  the  literature  of  a  country  or  period  as 
a  completed  or  '  static '  organism,  the  characteristics  evinced 
by  the  several  'fixed'  kinds  of  literature,  thus  regarded,  are 
neither  sufficiently  precise  nor  sufficiently  representative  to  yield 
criteria  or  models  by  which  specimens  in  general  may  be  tested. 
Criteria  drawn,  for  instance,  from  the  practice  of  three  or  four 
standard  ancient  poems  classified  as  'epical'  should  not  be 
applied  to  the  classification  of  poems  apparently  similar  but 
produced  under  different  conditions  :  as,  for  instance,  when 
period,  or  country,  or  the  stage  of  social,  political,  or  aesthetic 
development  is  different.  In  fact,  the  linear  and  encyclopedic 
methods  break  down  because  they  are  only  preliminary.  The 
final  and  scientific  method  is  the  cyclic.  It  does  not  dispense 
with  the  discipline  of  the  two  former,  nor  with  the  results 
provided  by  them,  but,  proceeding  on  the  principles  of  rational 
sequence  and  organic  development,  it  corrects  defective  con- 
clusions based  upon  temporal  sequence  and  formal  resemblance. 
It  is  dynamic.  Beginning  with  an  integral  and  definite  subject, 
the  cyclic  method  regards  this  particular  as  a  living  organism, 
studies  first  the  conditions  and  laws  of  its  existence,  advances 
to  the  conditions  and  laws  of  its  environment,  and  finally  inter- 
prets the  particular  in  terms  of  the  vital  and  rational  relations 


A.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  353 

by  which  it  is  characterized  as  an  individual  and,  at  the  same 
time,  as  a  component  of  a  system.  The  cyclic  method  provides 
from  the  outset  for  discipline  and  progress,  for  it  begins  with  the 
unit  and  by  a  process  of  radiation  widens  the  field  until  it  has 
exhausted  the  organism. 

3.  The  MATERIALS  are  twofold  :  Sources  and  Guides.     The 
Sources  may  be  classified  as  absolute  and  relative.     The  abso- 
lute include  texts   of  manuscripts  and    editions,    and  original 
biographical  materials  pertaining  to  the  subject.     The  relative 
are  contemporary  and  subsequent  notices,  oral  tradition,  and 
the  histories  of   culture  national   or  general,  whether  of  art, 
society,  religion,  or  politics,  that  may  illustrate  the  significance, 
position,  and  value  of  the  work  under  consideration. 

Guides  are  also  of  two  kinds,  those  that  indicate  materials 
and  those  that  indicate  methods.  To  the  former  class  belong 
histories  of  the  subject  or  of  any  part  of  it.  These  may  of 
course  enumerate  sources,  but  they  indicate  problems  as  well, 
and  results  so  far  as  attained.  The  latter  class  provides  the 
instruments  applicable  to  the  investigation  and  the  means  by 
which  we  may  determine  the  value  and  history  of  each.  Guides 
of  this  kind  are  (a)  those  that  indicate  the  methods  already 
prescribed  for  this  investigation  or  found  available  in  subsidiary 
or  kindred  lines,  as  in  the  theory  of  aesthetics,  of  poetry,  of 
criticism  ;  methods  derived  from  the  consideration  of  principles, 
from  experience,  or  from  the  general  science  of  '  methodology  '; 
and  (ft)  those  that  indicate  models  of  investigation  and  arrange- 
ment :  histories  of  aesthetics,  of  criticism,  of  philology. 

Bibliographies  may  be  regarded  as  guides  to  both  materials 
and  methods.  (Korting,  Grundr.  d.  rom.  Philol.  2  :  488-499 ; 
Boeckh,  Encykl.,  pp.  49,  50,  122  et  seq.,  156,  169-254;  Paul, 
Grundr.  d.  germ.  Philol.  i  :  188,  217-220.) 

4.  The  PROCESS  adopted  by  the  historian  involves  the  follow- 
ing Steps  :    first,  the  investigation  of  individual  productions ; 
second,  the  discovery  of  the  relation  existing  between  each 


354  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

production  and  its  environment  (historical,  racial,  social,  artistic, 
and  personal)  ;  third,  the  arrangement  of  results  in  an  organic 
whole.  But  while  from  the  point  of  view  of  method  the  steps 
should  be  considered  in  this  order,  it  will  be  evident  that  the 
first  and  second  cannot  be  regarded  as  mutually  exclusive  divi- 
sions, and  that  the  third  must  be  continually  present  to  the 
mind  of  the  student. 

The  process  involves  also  the  application  of  Criteria.  For  as 
purporting  to  constitute  the  literary  stock-in-trade  of  the  nation- 
ality, period,  movement,  type,  or  author  in  question,  the  produc- 
tions .must  be  tested  by  such  methods  as  may  determine  their 
value  intrinsic  and  relative.  These  methods  are  the  lower  or 
textual  criticism,  the  higher  or  literary-historical  criticism,  and 
the  aesthetic  criticism.  The  lower  criticism  aims  to  determine 
in  what  relation  the  transmitted  wording  of  the  text  stands  to 
the  wording  of  the  original  ;  the  higher  criticism,  to  determine 
by  whom,  at  what  time,  in  what  place,  and  under  what  circum- 
stances the  literary  work  was  composed  ;  the  aesthetic  criticism, 
to  determine  in  what  degree  the  literary  production  satisfies 
the  requirements  of  the  beautiful  (Korting,  Grundr.  2  :  374—407). 
In  the  examination  of  individual  productions  the  first  and 
second  of  these  methods  prevail ;  in  the  determination  of  rela- 
tions between  productions  and  environment  the  second  and 
third  are  especially  in  requisition  ;  but  in  each  stage  of  the 
historical  process  the  critic  may  more  or  less  avail  himself  of 
any  one  of  the  three  methods  of  criticism. 

Let  us,  then,  consider  the  process  by  its  Steps  or  Stages. 

First:  The  Investigation  of  Individual  Productions,  —  a.  To 
ascertain  the  Authentic  Form  of  the  literary  monument,  or  the 
most  trustworthy  copy  or  edition  of  it,  the  various  tests  of 
textual  criticism  must  be  applied.  (For  detailed  statement, 
see  Paul,  Grundr.  d.  germ.  Philol.  i :  176-188  ;  Boeckh,  Encykl. 
d.  phil.  Wiss.,  pp.  179-210;  Korting,  Encykl.  d.  rom.  Phil. 


A.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  355 

2  :  382-399.)  Testimony  concerning  the  life  of  the  author,  the 
origin  of  the  work,  the  dates  of  composition  and  publication, 
the  motive  of  composition  and  the  materials  employed,  the 
contemporary  and  subsequent  notices  of  it,  —  testimony  con- 
cerning all  in  fact  that  may  go  to  determine  the  authenticity 
of  the  text,  —  must  be  collected  and  sifted.  The  conclusions  of 
former  historians  are  to  be  weighed  and  the  evidence  of  language 
and  of  contemporary  culture  to  be  considered  ;  especially  so 
when  direct  literary  proof  of  the  genuine  form  of  the  text  is 
lacking.  It  will  be  noticed  by  the  student  that  textual  criti- 
cism is  therefore  essential  to  the  later  stages  of  historical  work, 
and  that  it  requires  for  its  proper  prosecution  accessory  and 
corroborative  material  derived  from  the  researches  conducted 
in  those  later  stages  of  the  process.  (Paul,  Grundr.  i  :  188- 
192  ;  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  engl.  Philol.,  pp.  60-82.  Cf.  the  appli- 
cations of  method  by  the  modern  school  of  Shakespearian 
scholars,  and  by  the  writers  of  the  Early  English  Text  Society 
Papers.) 

b.  The  Internal  History  of  the  Literary  Production.  —  In 
order  to  determine  the  importance  of  individual  productions 
with  reference  to  a  literary  growth,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain 
the  comparative  independence  or  originality  of  each.  This  is 
done  by  analyzing  the  production  into  its  elements  ;  and  here 
the  higher  or  literary  criticism  begins.  Concerning  the  absolute 
originality  of  the  literary  specimen  there  will  frequently  be 
room  for  doubt,  but  a  relative  originality,  a  novelty  of  thought, 
form,  or  treatment,  may  generally  be  conceded.  According  to 
Korting  (2  :  485-487),  the  productions  of  least  originality  are 
translations  ;  next  higher  come  those  that  reconstruct  or  '  work 
over'  a  native  or  foreign  original  ;  next,  those  that  fuse  (con- 
taminare)  two  or  more  existing  works  into  a  new  whole,  such 
as  Moliere's  L'Avare,  Terence's  Adelphoe  ;  next,  those  that  imi- 
tate the  general  thought  and  plan  of  an  existing  original,  but 
are  independent  in  the  execution  of  details ;  next,  productions 


356'  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

that  adapt  in  a  general  way  the  form  rather  than  the  contents 
of  some  existing  work  ;  next,  those  that  revive  and  incor- 
porate in  modern  form  materials  of  national  tradition  ;  next, 
those  that  similarly  avail  themselves  of  foreign  folklore ;  next, 
those  that  derive  their  material  from  real  life;  and,  finally,  those 
that  are  of  independent  invention. 

Now  it  will  be  observed  that  the  materials  here  cited  must  be 
drawn  either  from  tradition  or  from  an  imaginative  conception  of 
nature  and  human  life,  (i)  When,  as  in  the  case  of  translations, 
reconstructions,  fusion,  and,  to  some  extent,  of  imitation  and 
adaptation,  the  material  is  indirectly  derived  from  tradition,  the 
historian  will  subject  the  poem  (or  other  writing)  under  examina- 
tion to  a  comparison  with  the  production  upon  which  it  is  based, 
and  a  comparison  with  the  "  raw  "  material  of  tradition.  When, 
however,  the  poem  is  directly  derived  from  tradition,  the  his- 
torian must  fall  back  upon  the  original  (in  its  simplest  and 
most  naive  condition)  as  the  basis  of  comparison.  If  there  be 
more  than  one  original,  he  will  try  to  determine  the  indebted- 
ness of  the  poem  to  each,  and  to  ascertain  the  relative  aesthetic 
capability  of  the  materials  chosen.  If  there  exist  various  artistic 
reproductions  of  the  same  oral  or  written  original,  the  historian 
has,  of  course,  increased  opportunity  of  determining  by  com- 
parison the  idealizing  power  of  the  poet.  This  is,  generally 
speaking,  a  mechanical  and  "objective  method  of  analysis.  But 
when  (2)  the  materials  of  the  poem  are  drawn  from  nature  or 
the  life  of  man,  the  procedure  of  the  student  becomes  more 
subjective.  This  is  the  case  even  when  the  poet  has  recorded 
an  actual  experience.  For  although  the  places,  persons,  events, 
and  customs  described  may  be  identified  with  some  degree  of 
precision,  still  the  difficulty  of  personal  verification,  the.untrust- 
worthiness  of  report  regarding  remote  localities  and  person- 
ages of  former  times,  and  the  impossibility  of  reconstructing  a 
by-gone  stage  of  culture  are  such  that  the  student  will  be  com- 
pelled to  have  more  or  less  resort  to  the  imagination.  And  this 


A.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  357 

subjective  characteristic  of  the  study  is  still  further  emphasized 
when  the  work  under  examination  is  one  of  purely  creative 
imagination.  For  only  by  limiting  his  analysis  of  the  poet's 
material  to  the  data  of  psychological  and  ethical  science  can  the 
student  resist  the  temptation  to  indulge  in  intuitive  methods ;'  as 
soon  as  he  extends  his  analysis  to  the  criticism  of  poetic  form 
and  treatment,  he  finds  himself  within  the  realm  of  aesthetics 
(see  Paul,  Grundr.  i  :  221,  222). 

c.  The  Exposition  of  the  Work.  —  The  historian  must  charac- 
terize the  work  in  hand  so  that  the  reader,  even  though  not 
directly  acquainted  with  it,  may  understand  its  contents  and 
appreciate  its  quality.  The  essential  must  be  distinguished 
from  the  non-essential,  the  peculiar  from  the  ordinary  or  purely 
conventional.  The  masterpiece  should  therefore  be  studied 
in  itself,  in  the  light  of  the  motives  which  produced  it,  of  the 
author's  life  and  character,  and  of  his  other  works  ;  it  must  be 
studied  in  relation  to  its  materials  (see  b  above),  its  literary 
antecedents,  the  genus  or  type  to  which  it  belongs,  and  its 
historical  and  cultural  value.  Most  of  these  suggestions  are 
self-explanatory.  In  determining  the  meaning  of  a  work,  while 
note  is  made  of  every  revelation,  .unconscious  or  intentional,  of 
the  author's  personality,  one  must  be  careful  not  to  read  into 
the  poet  of  former  days,  and  through  him  into  his  works,  the 
views  and  culture  of  the  present ;  while  the  poet  is  considered 
in  relation  to  his  age,  one  must  be  careful  not  to  make  him  a 
mere  reflex  of  that  age ;  while  his  characteristics  are  sought  not 
only  in  the  work  under  consideration  but  in  his  complete  works, 
one  must  be  careful  not  to  give  him  credit  for  peculiarities 
which  were  common  to  his  generation.  To  characterize  a 
poetic  masterpiece,  it  is  also  necessary  to  determine  whether  it 
is  the  outcome  of  an  established  literary  movement  (using 
traditional  materials  or  following  conventional  methods),  or  is 
reactionary.  If  it  be  reactionary,  the  question  will  arise  whether 
the  poem  reverts  to  natural  and  social  sources  of  inspiration, 


358  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

revives  a  former  literary  tradition,  or  domesticates  some  fashion 
from  abroad.  This  phase  of  the  study  implies  a  knowledge  of 
literary  movements  (see  under  Arrangement  of  Results,  below). 
In  addition  to  a  knowledge  of  the  materials  of  the  poem  (see 
under  b,  p.  355),  information  must  be  gathered  concerning  the 
poet's  preference  in  respect  of  types  of  character,  motives, 
situations,  aesthetic  values,  ethical  ideals,  and  literary  forms, 
and  his  practice  should  be  compared  with  that  of  his  contem- 
poraries. .The  exposition  of  the  poem  demands  also  a  technical 
acquaintance  with  the  literary  genus  or  species  to  which  it 
belongs ;  a  comparison  of  the  poet's  phraseology  with  contem- 
porary colloquialisms  and  with  conventional  poetic  diction. 
With  regard  to  style  and  versification  similar  inquiries  must  be 
instituted.  (Cf.  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  engl.  Philol.,  pp.  343-386  ; 
Paul,  Grundr.  i  :  222-228.  On  the  extent  to  which  aesthetic 
considerations  should  be  regarded  while  characterizing  a  master- 
piece, see  Paul,  Grundr.  i  :  228,  229.)  A  knowledge  of  the 
poet's  relation  to  his  social  and  national  'environment,  of  the 
impulses  which  moved  him  to  write,  and  of  their  influence  upon 
the  character  of  the  literary  product  is  likewise  essential  to  the 
exposition  of  the  poem  ;  but  an  understanding  of  environments 
and  of  aesthetic  worth  implies  acquaintance  with  the  stage  of 
the  process  to  be  discussed  under  the  next  head.  (On  inter- 
pretation in  general,  see  Boeckh's  Encykl.,  pp.  79-169  ;  Blass's 
Hermeneutik  u.  Kritik,  pp.  127-232,  in  Iwan  Miiller's  Hand- 
buch,  vol.  I.) 

Second :  The  Relation  of  the  Literary  Production  to  the  National 
Life.  —  The  work  is  the  outcome  of  literary  antecedents,  of 
national  culture,  and  of  the  author's  individuality  as  affected  by 
both  of  them.  The  aspects  of  the  question  may  accordingly  be 
considered  under  these  and  related  heads. 

a.  Literary  Antecedents.  —  By  following  the  genealogy  of 
a  production  through  the  series  of  its  literary  predecessors,  a 


A.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  359 

critic  aims  to  discover  the  successive  modifications  of  mate- 
rial, treatment,  and  form,  through  which  the  phenomenon  has 
passed,  and  to  trace  it  to  its  source  in  the  national  life  ;  that  is 
to  say,  to  its  ultimate  objective  impulse.  Such  literary  geneal- 
ogies of  elements,  if  not  of  the  whole  tradition,  may  frequently 
be  traced  beyond  the  earliest  national  to  a  foreign  origin. 
Examine,  for  instance,  Tennyson's  Idylls  of  the  King,  Spenser's 
Faery  Queene,  Chaucer's  Canterbury  Tales,  several  of  Boc- 
caccio's Tales,  Chrestien  de  Troyes's  Le  Roman  de  Cliges, 
several  of  Shakespeare's  plays  and  the  romantic  dramas  of 
his  contemporaries,  the  "  Restoration  "  drama  of  manners,  the 
Spanish,  French,  and  English  novels  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth, 
and  sixteenth  centuries,  the  drama  of  the  French  Classical 
School,  Latin  elegiac  poetry,  etc.  In  respect  of  literary  fashions 
of  the  purely  artificial  sort  such  inherited  characteristics  can 
still  more  readily  be  traced.  (Cf.  Marinism,  the  '  conceptism  ' 
of  Quevedo,  the  '  cultism  '  of  Gongora,  the  Senecan  tragedy  in 
England,  the  Euphuism  of  Lyly  and  the  '  preciosity '  of  1'hotel 
de  Rambouillet ;  and  see  Korting,  2  :  450.) 

b.  National  Culture.  —  Contemporary  and  foregoing  phases 
of  culture  may  be  regarded  as  pouring  themselves  into  the 
literary  production  through  the  channels  of  race,  environment, 
art,  and  the  period.  The  work  in  question  must  therefore  be 
studied  with  reference  to  the  history  of  the  people,  both  insti- 
tutional (social,  religious,  and  political)  and  internal  (emotional, 
theoretical,  and  ethical).  It  should,  in  the  second  place,  be 
studied  as  the  expression,  to  a  certain  extent,  of  physical  and 
psychical  surroundings.  In  the  third  place,  it  should  be  regarded 
not  simply  as  the  descendant  of  a  line  of  literary  ancestors,  but 
as  related  to  the  arts  in  general,  —  to  allied  arts,  such  as  music, 
histrionics,  and  dancing  ;  to  industries,  such  as  printing ;  to  the 
history  of  national  art,  and  especially  to  existing  states  of  artis- 
tic production  and  of  the  aesthetic  consciousness.  The  devel- 
opment of  poetry  should,  indeed,  be  traced  more  rigorously 


360  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

than  it  generally  is,  in  connection  with  or  in  analogy  with  the 
successive  stages  of  the  national  history  of  art.  In  the  fourth 
place,  the  poem  should  be  considered  as  the  offspring  of  the 
moment  or  period  in  which  it  was  produced  ;  and  as  such  it 
may,  vice  versa,  prove  to  be  an  index  to  some  phase  or  other 
of  national  sentiment.  (Cf.  Paul,  Grundr.  i  :  216-217  '•>  Hegel, 
Aesth.  i  :  20,  45  ;  Taine's  formula  of  aesthetic  influences; 
Brunetiere,  L'fivolution  des  genres,  1:22;  Korting,  Encykl. 

2  :  455-) 

c.  The  Personality  of  the  Poet.  —  It  is  through  the  medium 
of  personality  that  literary  and  national  antecedents  are  focused 
in  the  poetic  production.  The  investigation  of  the  poet's 
personality  includes,  therefore,  a  study  of  his  relation  to  the 
community,  his  family,  his  friends,  his  important  contempora- 
ries, and  to  the  literary,  social,  religious,  and  political  insti- 
tutions of  his  country  and  of  other  lands.  Of  significance, 
moreover,  is  the  extent  to  which  all  these  in  turn  modify,  or  are 
modified  by,  the  character  of  the -man  —  as  composed  of  traits, 
personal,  moral,  and  spiritual,  inherited  and  acquired  —  dis- 
played in  the  body  of  his  imaginative  work  and  in  his  life. 

On  the  comparative  value  of  sources  of  biographical  infor- 
mation, autobiographies,  letters,  occasional  confessions  in 
the  author's  works,  records,  the  testimony  of  contempora- 
ries, oral  tradition,  subsequent  literary  reviews,  references,  allu- 
sions, citations,  etc.,  see  Paul,  Grundr.  i  :  217,  218  ;  Boeckh's 
Encykl.,  pp.  124-140,  210-240;  Korting's  Encykl.  2:483, 
484. 

From  this  process  of  investigation  the  student  will  have 
acquired  the  materials  necessary  for  the  more  exhaustive  expo- 
sition of  the  artistic  production.  He  will  also  have  discovered, 
through  the  medium  of  the  author's  personality,  the  bearing  of 
the  literary  work  upon  national  life  and  culture.  It  will  be 
evident  that  producer  and  product  together  form  a  component 
part  of  a  social  organism. 


A.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  361 

d.  But  if  the  historian  would  properly  gauge  the  importance 
of  the  production  in  the  history  of  national  culture  (see  £, 
p.  359),  he  must  determine  its  Aesthetic  Worth  as  well.  For 
the  general  consideration  of  aesthetic  values  and  aesthetic  tests, 
reference  may  be  made  to  §§  7-9  of  this  volume,  above  ;  but 
for  a  brief  statement  of  the  matter  in  its  literary  aspect,  see 
Korting's  Encykl.  d.  roman.  Philol.  2  :  399—403  ;  Paul,  Grundr. 
i  :  228,  229  ;  Boeckh's  Encykl.,  pp.  240-254  Gattungskritik. 
Korting,  whose  sketch  of  the  subject  is  simple  and  direct, 
classifies  aesthetic  worth  as  absolute  or  relative.  The  absolute 
aesthetic  worth  of  a  literary  production  is  decided  on  its  own 
merits  purely,  without  reference  to  the  stage  of  culture  which  it 
occupies,  its  artistic  environment,  or  the  value  of  similar  pro- 
ductions of  the  past  or  present.  A  work  of  absolute  aesthetic 
worth  has  universal  import  ;  it  belongs  to  the  literature  of  the 
world.  The  relative  aesthetic  worth  of  a  literary  production 
is  determined  by  comparing  it  with  similar  productions  of  the 
nation,  and  especially  of  the  period.  A  work  may  stand  rela- 
tively to  the  narrow  or  undeveloped  literature  of  the  race  very 
high,  but  absolutely  very  low.  Aesthetic  criticism  is  always 
liable  to  personal  bias  or  prejudice,  but  the  investigator  can, 
in  some  degree,  guard  himself  against  unfair  decisions  by  sub- 
jecting the  production  under  examination  to  the  following 
questions:  (i)  Is  the  tendency  of  the  work  worthy?  (2)  Is 
the  material  (the  subject)  worthy  and  conformable  to  the 
tendency  already  described  ?  (3)  Is  the  subject  fittingly  and 
artistically  handled  ?  i.e.,  is  the  technical  composition  or  treat- 
ment successful  ?  (4)  Is  the  style  appropriate  and  artistic  ? 
(5)  If  the  work  is  a  poem,  is  the  rhythmical  (metrical)  form 
appropriate  and  artistic  ?  (6)  If  epic  or  dramatic,  does  the 
execution  of  the  story  satisfy  the  requirements  of  essential 
probability  ?  Are  the  characters  psychologically  true  and  con- 
sistent ?  Do  the  descriptions  (epic)  satisfy  the  requirements  of 
probability  ?  Other  tests  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  critic. 


362  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

For  an  elaboration  of  these,  see  Korting  as  above.  But  all 
such  tests  are  reducible  to  three  :  Does  the  work  possess  qual- 
ities of  ideal  worth,  of  universal  acceptability,  of  permanent 
vitality?  Now,  when  this  interrogatory  can  be  unreservedly 
answered  in  the  affirmative,  the  production  concerned  may 
safely  be  esteemed  as  of  absolute  aesthetic  value  ;  but  when,  in 
answer  to  the  interrogatory,  reference  must  be  had  to  the 
spirit  and  productions  of  the  people  or  the  period,  the  work  in 
question  is  probably  of  relative,  not  of  absolute,  aesthetic  value. 
(Cf.  M.  Arnold,  Lewes,  Spenser,  Ruskin,  Stedman,  Watts, 
Santayana's  Sense  of  Beauty,  Gneisse's  Schiller's  Aesthetische 
Wahrnehmung,  etc.,  Gosse,  Mod.  Engl.  Lit,  Epilogue.  See,  in 
general,  §  21,  B  2,  below.) 

e.  The  Dynamic  Relation  of  the  Literary  Work  to  Life  and 
Thought.  —  For  this  consideration  the  preceding  studies  have 
cleared  the  way.  It  constitutes  the  natural  transition  to  the 
arrangement  of  results.  The  student  has  so  far  regarded  the 
production  under  examination  as  affected  by  literary,  national, 
and  other  influences  ;  he  now  regards  it  as  reacting  upon  its 
environment.  (See  p.  360,  c,  above.)  He  aims  to  discover 
its  effect  upon  the  literary  life  of  the  nation  or  the  world.  This 
effect  he  may  find  explicitly  estimated  by  contemporary  writers, 
recognized  informally  by  them  and  their  successors,  or  uncon- 
fessed  but  patent  in  the  modification  of  literary  thought  and 
style.  Its  wider  influence,  aesthetic,  religious,  social,  politi- 
cal, he  will  find  (i)  certified  by  authorities  in  these  fields  or 
(2)  proved,  though  with  an  ever  waning  degree  of  certainty, 
by  its  bearing  upon  the  concrete  institutions  of  life,  by  con- 
clusions drawn  from  inference,  or  by  the  uncertain  vogue  of 
tradition. 

Third :  The  Arrangement  of  Results,  —  The  results  of  the  pre- 
vious investigation  must  be  arranged  with  due  regard  to  ration-. 
ality,  continuity,  and  the  interdependence  of  parts  (uniformity)  ; 


A.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  363 

otherwise  the  growth  of  the  literary  period  or  type  will  escape 
observation.  Any  such  organism  may  be  regarded  as  national 
or  as  general  (universal). 

a.  National  Histories  of  Poetry  (i.e.,  of  Literary  Arf). —  The 
nation,  as  here  understood,  is  a  political  and  cultural  unit,  to 
which  identity  of  race  and  country,  and  community  of  language 
are  more  or  less  contributory.  Though  the  literature  of  the 
nation  may  not  be  all  in  one  language  (cf.  the  Latin  and  French 
literature  of  the  English  nation),  nor  produced  by  one  race  (cf. 
the  Irish  contributions  to  English  literature),  nor  —  even  if  pro- 
duced by  one  race  in  one  language  —  confined  to  one  country 
(cf.  the  literature  of  the  English  colonies  and  dependencies), 
still,  a  national  literature  is  characterized  by  common  political 
and  cultural  relations  which  unite  in  an  unmistakable  whole  the 
results  of  observation,  action,  feeling,  and  imagination  within 
their  sphere  of  influence.  One  is,  therefore,  justified  in  regard- 
ing a  certain  body  of  poetry  as  national. 

As  to  the  proper  arrangement  of  productions  within  this  unit, 
there  is  diversity  of  opinion.  Korting  (Encykl.  2  :  442,  443) 
mentions  three  kinds  of  relations  which  may  exist  between 
literary  works  :  the  External,  grouping  by  authors  or  schools  of 
authors,  by  periods  of  composition,  by  the  localities  in  which 
produced ;  the  Formal,  grouping  by  actual  (artistic  or  non- 
artistic),  linguistic  (ordinary  or  aesthetic),  or  rhythmical  (verse 
or  prose),  correspondence  of  form,  or  by  the  method  of  address 
(to  the  individual,  the  special  audience,  or  the  public)  adopted 
by  the  author  ;  the  Internal,  grouping  by  (i)  the  tendency  of 
the  writings  (impersonal,  reflective,  critical,  scientific,  moral, 
religious,  etc.)  and  (2)  their  composite  character,  inclusive  of  the 
nature  of  the  material  (borrowed  or  invented,  elevated  or  com- 
monplace, popular  or  learned),  the  arrangement  of  the  material, 
the  relation  of  the  author  to  the  material  (objective  or  subjective, 
and  —  if  subjective  —  sympathetic,  ironical,  humorous,  etc.), 
and  the  resulting  aesthetic  worth.  Choosing  the  internal  rela- 


364  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

tion  as  a  basis  of  classification,  he  arranges  productions  accord- 
ing to  the  literary  kinds  or  types  (Litteraturgattungen)  and 
literary  currents  or  movements  (Litteraturstromungen).  Boeckh 
(EncykL,  p.  648)  strongly  advocates  the  arrangement  according 
to  types  or  species  (epic,  lyric,  dramatic),  calling  it  the  generic 
or  eidographic  method ;  but  he  appreciates  the  objection 
brought  against  this  method,  namely,  that  though  it  preserves 
the  continuity  of  the  type,  it  ignores  or  slights  the  element  of 
synchronism  ;  and  accordingly  he  later  advocates  (Encykl., 
pp.  742-745  Methodologischer  Zusatz)  a  combination  of  the 
eidographic  and  the  synchronistic  methods  :  so  as  to  represent 
the  mutual  relations  of  contemporary  arrangement  by  periods, 
types,  movements,  and  writers.  Jn  his  discussion  of  the  merits 
of  the  two  methods,  he  suggests  that  the  general  literary  devel- 
opment of  the  period  be  sketched  as  an  introduction  to  the 
development  of  individual  types  within  the  period. 

According  to  Elze  (Grundr.  d.  engl.  Philol.,  p.  233),  the  eido- 
graphic or  generic  method,  while  it  may  be  successfully  applied 
to  the  less  complex  literatures  of  antiquity  with  which  Boeckh, 
for  instance,  deals,  is  not  adaptable  to  modern  literatures.  And 
properly  so,  for  the  lines  of  demarcation  between  literary  kinds 
are  not  so  distinct  as  they  formerly  were,  and  the  minor  species 
are  in  a  state  of  internal  modification  and  mutual  flux.  .  Illus- 
trating the  subject,  Elze  enumerates,  with  reference  to  the 
history  of  English  literature,  the  following  methods  of  arrange- 
ment, and  he  advocates  a  combination  to  suit  the  purpose  of 
the  historian  :  (i)  By  countries :  histories  of  Scottish  poetry, 
of  Irish,  American,  Australian  poetry,  etc.,  eg.,  Campbell's 
Introd.  to  the  History  of  Poetry  in  Scotland  (Edinb. :  1779). 
(For  bibliography,  see  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  engl.  Philol.,  pp.  244- 
246.)  (2)  By  political  periods  :  Anglo-Saxon,  Norman,  Eliza- 
bethan, etc.,  with  subdivisions  according  to  literary  periods  : 
for  instance,  under  the  political  period  entitled  modern  England 
(1688  to  the  present),  literary  periods  as  follows  :  The  Golden 


A.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  365 

Age  of  Queen  Anne,  the  Decline  of  French  Taste,  the  Return 
to  distinctive  National  Poetry,  the  Lake  School,  etc.;  e.g.,  Sted- 
man's  Victorian  Poets.  (3)  By  kinds  or  types:  histories  of 
prose,  of  poetry,  of  lyric,  epic,  etc. ;  e.g.,  Klein's  Geschichte  des 
englischen  Dramas  (2  vols.  Leipz.  :  187  6),  Collier's  or  Ward's 
histories  of  the  drama.  (4)  By  biographies  of  authors  :  e.g., 
English  Men  of  Letters  series,  Minto's  Characteristics  of  the 
English  Poets  (Chaucer  to  Shirley).  For  a  classified  bibliog- 
raphy with  reference  to  English  literature,  see  Elze,  pp.  244- 
249. 

Still  another  method  of  arrangement  is  mentioned,  but  not 
with  approbation,  by  Paul  (Grundr.  d.  germ.  Philol.  i  :  237), 
viz.,  (5)  by  schools :  such  as  the  School  of  Gottsched,  the  Swiss 
School,  Wieland's  School,  Klopstock's  School,  —  e.g.,  Gervi- 
nus's  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  Dichtung  and  Haym's  Romantische 
Schule ;  or  in  England  the  Lake  School  (cf.  Elze's  literary 
periods),  the  Classical  School,  the  Romantic  School,  the  Alex- 
andrine poets,  the  Art  School,  the  Androtheist  School,  the  Real- 
istic School, — e.g.,  Devey's  Comparative  Estimate  of  Modern 
Eng.  Poets  (Lond. :  1873).  If  we  add  to  these  the  arrange- 
ment by  movements,  we  have  six  methods  in  all.  The  sixth  deals 
with  such  subjects  as  the  pseudo-classical  movement  in  France, 
the  rise  of  Classical  poetry  in  England,  the  romantic  movement 
in  England,  —  e.g.,  Heine's  Romantic  School,  Phelps's  English 
Romantic  Movement,  Gosse's  From  Shakespeare  to  Pope,  G. 
Sarrazin's  La  renaissance  de  la  poesie  anglaise  (Paris  :  1889), 
Greinz's  Die  tragischen  Motive  in  d.  deutsch.  Dichtung  seit 
Goethes  Tode  (Leipz. :  1889),  Tilley's  Literature  of  the  French 
Renaissance  (Cambr.  :  1885),  P.  Albert's  La  litte'rature  fran- 
gaise  au  XVIIe  siecle  (Paris  :  1880),  Brandes's  Romantische 
Schule  in  Frankreich  (Leipz.  :  1881). 

It  will  have  been  noticed  that  the  arrangements  by  countries, 
by  periods,  and  by  authors  —  that  is  to  say,  the  topographical, 
the  synchronistic,  and  the  biographical  methods — deal  primarily 


366  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

with  the  external  relations  existing  between  literary  productions  ; 
they  are,  on  that  account,  severally  insufficient.  The  arrange- 
ment by  schools  —  the  magisterial — is  frequently  based  upon 
formal  relations  of  style,  which,  like  all  fashions,  are  fleeting  ; 
and  even  when  this  arrangement  is  based  upon  internal  relations, 
such  as  tendency,  or  treatment  of  material,  since  the  school 
itself  depends  upon  a  master,  a  locality,  or  a  coterie  (all  external 
relations),  its  continuance  is  uncertain,  and  its  influence  limited. 
There  remain,  therefore,  the  arrangements  by  types —  \h&  generic 
or  eidographic  —  and  by  movements  — the  dynamic.  The  advan- 
tages of  the  former  are  adequately  set  forth  by  Boeckh,  as  indi- 
cated above  (see  also  Korting,  2  :  443-454).  It  may  be  added 
that  the  generic  arrangement  is  the  outcome  of  a  consideration 
of  internal,  and  therefore  abiding,  literary  relations  (for  the  epic, 
lyric,  and  dramatic  forms  of  expression  have  psychological  rea- 
sons for  distinct  organic  existence),  and  that  a  proper  atten- 
tion to  the  development  of  types  implies  the  study  of  formal 
and  external  literary  conditions.  But  it  must  always  be  con- 
ceded that  implicit  adherence  to  this  generic  or  eidographic 
method  leads  to  the  emphasis  of  one  type  at  a  time,  out  of  rela- 
tion to  others,  to  a  repetition  of  historical  and  biographical 
material,  and  to  neglect  of  the  influence  of  synchronistic  litera- 
ture. The  dynamic  method,  however,  while  dealing  with  the 
internal  relations  existent  between  literary  productions,  necessi- 
tates equally  the  investigation  of  movements  which  lie  on  the 
surface  (and  are  formal),  and  of  movements  which  are  altogether 
external.  The  study  of  poetry  by  its  movements  requires,  there- 
fore, for  its  instruments  the  narrower  methods  already  described 
(by  countries^  periods,  authors,  schools),  and  the  method  by 
literary  types  as  well.  Because  of  its  vital  and  genetic  character 
it  is  especially  adapted  to  afford  "  that  ideal  survey  "  which,  as 
Paul  says  (Grundr.  i  :  237),  "cannot  be  attained  if  the  histo- 
rian holds  mechanically  to  any  given  scheme."  It  is  adapted  to 
the  historical  presentation  of  national  poetry  and  of  poetry  in 


A.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  367 

general.  Poetry  being  a  multiple  of  subject,  form,  and  treat- 
ment (see  §  19,  I,  C,  above),  the  dynamic  method  of 
arrangement  may  (i)  present  the  development  of  any  one  of 
these  factors  :  the  poetic  subject,  or  form,  or  process  of  execu- 
tion; or  it  may  (2)  present  movements  of  complexity  involving 
two  or  all  of  these  factors  (and,  therefore,  cover  the  development 
of  a  type,  epic  or  lyric,  or  of  a  species,  such  as  the  historical 
romance)  ;  or  it  may  (3)  present  movements  of  more  restricted 
scope  but  of  no  less  persistence,  —  so  that  by  this  means  one  of 
the  elements  constitutive  of  the  poetic  subject  may  be  traced 
through  a  life  of  centuries  (a  striking  theme  or  popular  plot, 
for  instance ;  some  rich  material  of  history,  nature,  or  imagina- 
tion )  ;  or  one  of  the  elements  constitutive  of  poetic  form  may  be 
followed  through  its  various  modifications  (in  style,  for  instance, 
in  imagery,  or  diction,  or  verse)  ;  or  one  of  the  elements  con- 
stitutive of  poetic  procedure  may  be  shown  in  its  survival  or  in  its 
revival  as  a  fashion  (didactic  or  hedonic  ;  idealistic,  realistic,  or 
romantic). 

Korting  (Encykl.  d.  roman.  Philol.  2  :  450—471)  divides  liter- 
ary currents  (or  movements)  into  Formal  and  Material.  The 
former  proceed  from  the  manner  of  literary  construction  :  nai've 
or  reflective  (consciously  artistic);  the  latter,  from  the  content  of 
the  literary  production  :  mystical  or  rationalistic.  The  classical 
(pseudo-classical)  movement  is  primarily  reflective  (conven- 
tional) in  form,  rationalistic  (scientific)  in  thought ;  the  roman- 
tic is  naive  (capricious  at  times)  in  form,  and  given  to  the 
mystical  and  fantastic  in  conception.  For  an  excellent  antith- 
esis of  the  two  movements,  see  Korting,  p.  465  et  seq. 

b.  General  Histories  of  Poetry. —  Any  of  the  previous  meth- 
ods may  be  employed  in  the  presentation  of  subjects  wider  than 
the  national.  But,  when  biographical,  the  general  or  universal 
histories  become  dictionaries  like  Vapereau's  ;  when  ethnographi- 
cal, the  element  of  international  continuity,  by  means  of  action 
and  reaction,»is  neglected,  as,  to  some  degree,  by  Scherr  in  his 


368  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Allgemeine  Geschichte  d.  Literatur  (2  vols.  Stuttg.  :  1875)  ; 
when  periodic,  the  development  of  types  and  movements  is 
discontinuous,  as  in  Stern's  Geschichte  d.  neuern  Litteratur 
(6  vols.  Leipz.  :  1882).  The  arrangement  by  schools  is  open 
to  the  same  objection  as  the  biographical.  The  most  feasible 
arrangements  are  therefore  those  best  suited  to  national  his- 
tories, the  eidographic,  as  in  Klein's  Geschichte  des  Dramas 
(13  vols.  Leipz.  :  1865-76),  or  the  dynamic  (genetic),  as  in 
Brandes's  Die  Litteratur  d.  neunzehnten  Jahrhunderts  in  ihren 
Hauptstromungen  (6  vols.  Berl.  :  1872).  Both  of  these  works 
avail  themselves,  however,  of  the  other  methods  as  principles  of 
cross-division. 

5.  The  LITERATURE  OF  THE  STUDY. — a.  The  student  will 
find  the  best  introduction  to  methods  in  the  following  :  Boeckh's 
Encykl.  d.  philol.  VVissenschaften,  pp.  128,  144,  255,  648,  743  ff. ; 
Paul's  Grundr.  d.  germ.  Philol.,  Abschnitt  III,  Methodenlehre, 
pp.  215-238  Literaturgeschichte  ;  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  englischen 
Philol.,  pp.  232-250  Literaturgeschichte;  Tobler's  Methodik 
d.  philol.  Forschung  (in  Grober's  Grundr.  d.  romanisch.  Philol.), 
pp.  251—280,  especially  the  portion  entitled  Litteraturhisto- 
rische  Kritik  ;  Korting's  Encykl.  d.  romanischen  Philol.,  vol.  I, 
pp.  63-82  Die  Litteratur  (distinguishes between  the  "  chronistic  " 
and  the  "  pragmatic  "  history),  and  vol.  II,  pp.  482-505  Die 
Litteraturgeschichte. 

Other  works  of  general  importance  are  G.  Gerber,  Die  Sprache 
als  Kunst  (Berl.  :  1885),  vol.  I,  pp.  50-70  Poesie  u.  Sprach- 
kunst,  pp.  107-1 15  Andeutungen  iiber  die  Geschichte  d.  Sprach- 
kunst,  pp.  235-291  Verhaltniss  der  Sprachen  der  Prosa  u.  der 
Poesie  zu  d.  menschlichen  Entwicklung;  vol.  II,  pp.  501-510 
Das  Grenzgebiet  zwischen  Sprachkunst  u.  Dichtkunst  (Gerber's 
book  is  especially  useful  as  furnishing  philological  principles  of 
exposition  and  definition  introductory  to  the  historical  study 
of  the  subject)  ;  H.  Steinthal,  Einleitung  in  d.  Psychologic 
u.  Sprachwissenschaft  (2.  Aufl.  Berl.:  1881),  pp.  32-35  Die 


A.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  369 

Litteraturgeschichte  (of  value  as  providing  the  psychological 
basis  for  exposition)  ;  and  Carriere,  Geschichte  der  Kunst  im 
Zusammenhang  d.  Culturentwickelung  (develops  the  aesthetic 
aspect  of  literary  history). 

b.  To  the  method  of  historical  procedure  in  the  field  of 
ancient  classical  poetry  the  following  are  useful  guides  :  F.  A. 
Wolf,  Encykl.  der  Philologie  (Leipz.  :  1831,  1845);  Schaaff, 
Encykl.  der  klass.  Altertumskunde  (Magdeb.:  1806-1808);  Ast, 
Grundr.  d.  Philologie  (Landshut :  1808);  Bernhardy,  Grund- 
linien  zur  Encykl.  d.  Philologie  (Halle  :  1832).  Especially 
worthy  of  note  are  the  following  contributors  to  Iwan  Miiller's 
Handbuch  d.  klass.  Altertumswissenschaften  :  L.  von  Urlichs, 
vol.  I,  pp.  29-31  Litteraturgeschichte;  Fr.  Blass,  vol.  I, 
pp.  209-212  Verschiedener  Umfang  bei  d.  verschied.  Littera- 
turgattungen  (also  other  portions  of  the  Hermeneutik  und 
Kritik)  ;  W.  Christ,  vol.  VII,  pp.  i-io  Begriff  u.  Gliederung  d. 
Litteraturgeschichte  (follows  Boeckh  in  the  classification  of 
methods  as  synchronistic  and  eidological,  and  adopts  a  com- 
bination of  the  two)  ;  M.  Schantz,  vol.  VIII,  pt.  I,  pp.  1-8 
Methode  u.  Entwicklung  d.  Rom.  Litt.-Gesch.;  K.  Krumbacher, 
vol.  IX,  pp.  18-20  on  the  confusion  of  literary  kinds  in  Byzan- 
tine literature,  and  the  lack  of  genetic  development  (cf.  on  a 
similar  phenomenon  G.  Knaack's  article  on  Alexandrine  Liter- 
ature in  Pauly-Wissowa's  Real-Encyclop.  d.  class.  Altertumsw.). 
But  Boeckh's  lectures  on  critical  method  are  the  source  of 
most  of  the  subsequent  attempts  to  systematize  literary  '  kinds.' 
For  general  bibliography,  see  Hiibner's  Grundr.  zu  Vorle- 
sungen  iiber  d.  Gesch.  und  Encykl.  d.  class.  Philol.  (Berl.  : 
1879). 

It  is  unnecessary  to  append  a  list  of  the  histories  of  classical 
poetry,  since  an  enumeration  has  already  been  made  by  Boeckh, 
Encykl.,  pp.  747-751,  and  by  Christ  and  Schantz  in  the  Hand- 
buch d.  klass.  Altertumsw.  In  the  Handbuch  the  works  on 
Greek  literary  history  which  may  serve  as  examples  of  critical 


370  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

method,  e.g.,  those  of  Fabricius,  Bernhardy,  O.  Miiller,  Fr. 
Scholl,  Th.  Bergk,  Nicolai,  Sittl,  Mure,  Mahaffy,  Burnouf, 
Croiset  et  Maur,  are  described  in  vol.  VII,  pp.  8,  9  ;  the  greater 
works  on  Latin  literary  history,  of  Scholl,  Bahr,  Bernhardy,  Klotz, 
Teuffel,  Munk,  Sellar,  Patin,  Ribbeck,  Ebert,  Nisard,  are  noticed 
in  vol.  VII,  pt.  I,  pp.  5,6,  and  vol.  VIII,  pt.  II,  p.  3.  For  histories 
of  Greek  and  Roman  literature  conjointly  considered,  see  vol. 
VIII,  pt.  I,  p.  6.  Further  bibliography  of  Latin  literature  will 
be  found  in  Korting,  Encykl.  i  :  131-134  Romische  Lit.,  Kir- 
chenlatein,  Volkslatein,  Mittelalterliches  Latein.  An  admirable 
illustration  of  the  eidographic  or  generic  method  of  treatment  is 
offered  by  Auguste  Couat  in  his  La  poesie  Alexandrine  sous 
les  trois  Ptolemees  (Paris  :  1882).  Professor  Couat  fulfils  the 
chronological  requirements  in  his  introductory  sketch  of  the 
subject ;  the  body  of  his  work  he  classifies  under  elegiac,  lyric, 
epic,  pastoral,  and  didactic  poetry.  (Cf.  the  twofold  method 
advocated  by  Boeckh,  Encykl.  d.  philol.  Wissensch.,  p.  743). 
Another  excellent  instance  of  the  eidographic  treatment  is 
H.  Flach's  Geschichte  d.  griech.  Lyrik  (Tubingen  :  1883). 

c.  For  the  treatment  of  the  subject  with  reference  to  modern 
poetry  in  general,  see  B.  Schmitz,  Encykl.  d.  philol.  Studiums  d. 
neueren  Sprachen  (2.  Aufl.     Berl. :   1876),  pp.  63-83  Die  Litte- 
ratur,  pp.  177-186  Franzosische  Litteraturgeschichte,  pp.  265- 
270  Englische  Litteraturgeschichte,  p.  303  Vergleichende  Lit- 
teraturgeschichte (on  the  whole  a  wooden  production,  but  it 
affords  a  view  of  literary  methodology,  and  gives  a  full  but 
uncritical  bibliography) ;    B.  Schmitz,   Encykl.   d.   philol.  Stu- 
diums, i.  Suppl.  1879,  2.  Suppl.  1881,3.  Suppl.  1881  ;  Anhang: 
—  Verzeichniss  d.  auf.  d.  neueren  Sprachen  (franz.  u.  engl.)be- 
ziiglichen  Programmabhandlungen,  u.  s.  w.  (by  H.  Varnhagen. 
Leipz. :   1877). 

d.  A  later  and  much  more  comprehensive  edition  of  the 
Verzeichniss,   prepared  by  Johannes   Martin    (Leipz.  :   1893), 
covers  the  field  of  romance  philology  (as  well  as  of  English)  and 


A.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  371 

of  philological  and  pedagogical  method.  In  Korting's  Encykl. 
d.  roman.  Philol.,  mention  is  made  of  the  principal  works  pro- 
duced on  the  history  of  romance  poetry.  For  the  masters  of 
method  in  Germany,  Diez  (Leben  u.  Werke  d.  Troubadours, 
etc.),  Tobler  (see  Grober's  Grundriss),  Gaspary,  Forster,  Neu- 
mann, Lemcke,  Vollmoller,  Suchier,  Bartsch,  Ebert,  Stengel, 
Hofmann,  Breymann,  Grober,  Holland,  Mahn,  Matzner,  Lucking, 
and  others,  see  Korting,  i  :  169-178.  For  the  contributions  to 
method  by  French  scholars,  such  as  G.  Raynouard,  Gaston 
Paris,  Paul  Meyer,  Aubertin,  L.  Gautier,  see  Korting,  i  :  180— 
182. 

On  literary  history,  its  periods,  materials,  and  methods  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  Romance  languages,  Korting  dwells  at 
length  in  his  Encykl.  d.  roman.  Philol.  2  :  482-505.  No  com- 
prehensive scientific  history  of  Romance  literature  has  yet  been 
written.  For  Italy  the  work  has  been  done  best  by  Tiraboschi 
(Modena  :  1772-81),  for  Spain  by  Ticknor  (Boston:  1849), 
for  Portugal  by  Braga  (Porto  :  1875),  for  tne  Rhaeto-romanic 
race  by  Rausch  (Frankfurt  a.  M.  :  1870). 

e.  For  a  general  survey  of  the  history  of  French  poetry,  and 
an  explanation  of  the  difficulties  attending  the  methodical  study 
of  the  subject,  the  student  is  referred  to  Korting,  Encykl.  d. 
roman.  Philol.  (3  Thle.  Heilbronn  :  1884)  3  :  367-421.  Works 
which  treat  of  the  general  history  of  French  literature  are 
enumerated  on  pp.  305,  306  ;  works  on  the  origins  of  French 
literature,  pp.  307,  308  ;  histories  of  special  periods,  pp.  308- 
310;  an  exhaustive  bibliography  of  materials,  pp.  310—336; 
histories  of  modern  French  literature,  pp.  336-339  ;  materials 
for  middle  and  modern  French  literature,  pp.  339-367.  A 
fair  bibliography  of  the  principal  histories  of  French  literature, 
published  between  1830  and  1886,  is  given  in  J.  Demogeot's 
Hist,  de  la  litt.  franchise  (22*=  ed.  Paris  :  1886),  pp.  675- 
678;  of  materials  in  poetry,  pp.  678-681;  in  drama,  pp.  68 1, 
682  ;  of  sources  and  works  to  consult  in  the  study  of  French 


372  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

literature,  pp.  687-700;  origins  and  sources,  p.  690;  Middle 
Ages,  Trouveres  and  Troubadours,  pp.  691-693;  history  of 
letters,  pp.  695-697  ;  poetry,  p.  697  ;  drama,  p.  698. 

For  comparative  study  of  method  the  student  may  examine 
the  following  histories  (devoted  to  poetry  exclusively) :  Cre'pet, 
Les  poetes  frangais  (collection  of  masterpieces  with  biograph- 
ical and  critical  notices.  4  vols.  Paris:  1861);  L.  Gautier, 
Les  epopees  fran£aises  (4  vols.  Paris:  1878);  A.  Jeanroy, 
Les  origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au  Moyen  Age 
(Paris:  1889);  G.  Paris,  La  poe'sie  du  Moyen  Age  (Paris: 
1887);  Ste.-Beuve,  Tableau  de  la  poe'sie  franchise  (in  the 
1 6th  century  —  historical  and  critical.  2  vols.  Paris:  1828); 
Ch.  Aubertin,  Les  origines  de  la  langue  et  de  la  poesie  franchise 
(Paris:  1875);  Jullien,  Hist,  de  la  poesie  fr.  a  1'e'poque  impe- 
riale  (2  vols.  Paris:  1844);  Fauriel,  Hist,  de  la  poesie  pro- 
vengale  (3  vols.  Paris:  1846);  Benoiston  de  Chateauneuf, 
Essai  sur  la  poesie  et  les  poetes  fr.  aux  i2e,  i3e,  et  i4e  siecles 
(Paris:  1815);  Roquef-ort-Flame'ricourt,  De  1'etat  de  la  poesie 
fr.  dans  les  i2e  et  i3e  siecles  (Paris:  1815);  Massieu,  La 
poe'sie  fr.  du  ne  au  ise  siecle  (Paris  :  1739). 

Continuing  the  comparative  study  of  method,  histories  of  French 
literature  in  general  may  now  more  carefully  be  considered. 
Some  of  these  are  enumerated  under  the  names  of  the  authors 
(Villemain,  D.  Nisard,  GeVuzez,  Talbot,  de  Laharpe,  Buron, 
Demogeot,  Roche,  Mager,  F.  Kreyssig,  H.  Breitinger,  Engel, 
Kressner,  W.  Konig)  in  Korting's  Encykl.  3  :  305,  306.  See 
Demogeot,  pp.  675  and  695,  for  other  authorities,  e.g.,  the 
Hist.  lit.  de  la  France  (by  Dom.  Rivet,  Dom.  Taillandier,  etc. 
24  vols.  Paris:  1733-1862);  Sismondi,  Moke,  Thery,  Des 
Essarts.  Dowden's,  Van  Laun's,  and  Saintsbury's  histories  in 
English  will  supply  useful  outlines.  The  literary  studies  of 
G.  Merlet,  Sainte-Beuve,  Brunetiere,  Lenient,  Paul  Albert,  de 
Lome'nie,  E.  Deschanel,  H.  Prat,  Vinet,  Godefroy,  Desnoires- 
terres,  Taine,  E.  ScheVer,  Jos.  Texte,  and  the  numerous  critics 


A.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  373 

whose  articles  appear  in  Rev.  de  Deux  Mondes,  Nouvelle  Revue, 
etc.,  are  excellent  examples  of  historical  method  as  applied  to 
literary  biography  and  literary  periods  (Korting,  Encykl.  3  : 
306,  336-339).  Descriptions  of  the  studies  on  periods,  authors, 
and  movements,  published  by  Ampere,  Ch.  Aubertin,  Brunetiere, 
Feugere,  Genin,  A.  Houssaye,  Littre,  Ch.  Nisard,  Paris,  Patin, 
Pellissier,  Planche,  St.  Marc  Girardin,  Sayous,  are  given  by 
Demogeot  (Hist.  lit.  fr.),  pp.  675-677  ;  and  a  still  further  list 
of  special  studies  by  Duquesnel,  J.  Schmidt,  Dannon,  Le  Clerc, 
Jolly,  Gidel,  Fournel,  Vinet,  Maron,  M.-J.  Chenier,  Nettement, 
Callieres.  Michiels,  etc.,  is  given  by  Demogeot  (Hist.  lit.  fr.), 
pp.  695-697. 

The  history  of  literary  types  has  been  cultivated  by  French- 
men more  than  by  the  English  or  the  Germans.  Lists  of  studies 
in  the  history  of  the  drama  are  given  by  Demogeot  (pp.  68 1, 
682,  698),  and  by  Korting  (3  :  306,  307).  On  the  epos  and  other 
types,  see  Korting,  3  :  310-336.  See  also  the  Bibliography  at 
the  end  of  Professor  Dowden's  History  of  French  Literature  ; 
Brunetiere,  Jeanroy,  Lenient,  Petit  de  Julleville,  Faguet,  Chasles, 
le  Breton,  Morillot,  Fournel,  etc. 

/.  The  materials  for  the  history  of  poetry  in  the  other 
Romance  languages,  and  the  bibliography  for  periods,  themes, 
authors,  and  movements,  will  be  found  in  Korting  as  follows : 
3:  422-479  Das  Provenzalische,  479-501  Das  Catalanische, 
501-563  Das  Spanische,  564-598  Das  Portugiesische,  599-751 
Das  Italienische,  752-783  Das  Rato-Romanische,  784-837  Das 
Riimanische. 

g.  Paul's  Grundriss,  i  :  129-142,  furnishes  the  necessary 
references  to  methods,  advocated  or  adopted,  in  the  historical 
treatment  of  German  and  North  European  poetry.  The  more 
important  German  authorities  are  the  brothers  Schlegel,  the 
brothers  Grimm,  Lachmann,  Uhland  (Geschichte  d.  altdeut- 
schen  Poesie),  Lessing,  Schiller,  Goethe  (Dichtung  u.  Wahrheit), 
Schlosser  (Geschichte  des  18.  Jahrhunderts :  1823);  Gervinus 


374  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  21. 

(Gesch.  d.  poetisch.  Nationallitteratur  d.  Deutschen,  1835-42  ; 
5th  ed.,  under  the  title  Gesch.  d.  deutschen  Dichtung,  Leipz.  : 
1871-74)  ;  Koberstein  (Entwicklung  der  deutschen  Poesie, 
Braunschw.  :  1865  ;  Vermischte  Aufsatze  zur  Litteraturgesch. 
u.  Aesthetik,  Leipz. :  1858  ;  and  Grundriss  zur  Gesch.  d.  deutsch. 
Nationallitteratur.,  6th  ed.,  5  vols.,  1884  ff.)  ;  Vilmar  (Gesch. 
d.  deutsch.  Nationallitteratur,  1845)  ;  Wackernagel  (Gesch.  d. 
deutsch.  Litteratur,  1848-55.  26.  ed.  2  vols.  1879) ;  Goedeke 
(Grundriss  zur  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Dichtung  aus  d.  Quellen. 
2d  ed.  2  vols.  Dresden  :  1886). 

Histories  specially  devoted  to  German  poetry  which  may  be 
used  as  material  for  criticism  by  the  student  of  method  are 
Bohtz  (Gesch.  d.  neuern  deutsch.  Poesie.  Gottingen  :  1832); 
Cholevius  (Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Poesie.  2  vols.  Leipz.:  1854); 
Eichendorff  (Gesch.  d.  poetisch.  Lit.  Deutschl.  Paderborn  : 
1866);  Hahn  (Gesch.  d.  poetisch.  Litt.  d.  Deutschen.  fieri.: 
1888);  Loebell  (Entwickelung  d.  deutsch.  Poesie,  Klopstock 
bis  zu  Goethe.  3  vols.  Braunschw.:  1856);  Men  zel  (Deutsche 
Dichtung.  3  vols.  Stuttg.:  1858);  Rapp  (Das  goldene  Alter  d. 
deutsch.  Poesie.  Tubingen:  1861);  Roquette  (Gesch.  d.  deutsch. 
Dichtung.  Stuttg. :  1879)  ;  Waldberg  (Deutsche  Renaissance 
Lyrik.  Berl.  :  1888). 

Of  course  many  of  the  best  known  histories,  such  as  Kober- 
stein's  and  Vilmar's,  treat  of  German  literature  in  general.  It 
will  suffice  to  mention  a  few  others  worthy  of  examination  : 
Brugier  (Nat.-Litteratur)  ;  Gotzinger  (Deutsche  Litteratur, 
1844);  Hirsch  (Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Litt.  3  vols.  1883);  Hofer 
(Deutsche  Lit.-Gesch.,  1885);  Kluge  (Nat.-Litteratur,  1886); 
Koenig  (Deutsche  Litt.-Geschichte,  1885);  Vogt  u.  Koch, 
Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  (Leipz.  :  1897);  Kurz  (Literatur-Gesch. 
4  vols.  1876);  Kurz  u.  Paldamus  (Dichter  u.  Prosaisten.  4  vols. 
Leipz.:  1867);  Menzel  (Germ.  Lit.,  trans,  by  C.  C.  Felton. 
3  vols.  Boston  :  1840  ;  also  trans,  by  Mrs.  G.  Horrocks  in 
Bohn  Libr.);  Scherer  (Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Litteratur.  Berl.: 


A.}  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  375 

1885  ;    trans,    by    Mrs.    F.    C.   Conybeare.      2    vols.     N.  Y.  : 
1886)  ;  Julian  Schmidt  (Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Litt.  seit  Lessing. 

3  vols.     Leipz.  :  1866)  ;  Sehrwald  (Deutsche  Dichter  und  Den- 
ker.    2.  Aufl.    2  vols.    Altenburg  :  1883)  ;  Barthel  (Die  deutsche 
Nat.-Litt.    Gutersloh  :  1879);  R.  von  Gottschall  (Deutsch.  Nat.- 
Lit.  d.  19.  Jahrhs.     4  vols.     Bresl.  :   1881);   Heine  (Romantic 
School;  trans,  by  S.  L.  Fleishmann.     N.  Y.  :  1882)  ;  Hettner 
(Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit.  im   18.  Jahrh.     4  vols.     Braunschw. : 
1879) ;  Hillebrand  (Deutsch.  Nat.-Litt.  im  18.  u.  19.  Jahrh.  3  vols. 
Gotha:  1875);  Horn  (Poesie  u.  Beredsamkeit  d.  Deutschen  von 
Luther  bis  zur  Gegenwart.    3  vols.     Berl.  :   1822).     For  mono- 
graphs on  earlier  periods,  see  Paul,  Grundriss,  i  :  132-138. 

For  histories  and  monographs  on  Dutch  and  Scandinavian 
poetry,  see  Paul,  Grundriss,  pp.  139-142. 

h.  In  the  history  of  English  poetry  little  that  is  methodical 
has  been  done  by  English-speaking  writers,  and  nothing  that 
is  both  methodical  and  exhaustive  by  the  scholars  of  the  Conti- 
nent. For  a  full  and  classified  bibliography,  see  Elze,  Grundr. 
d.  engl.  Philol.,  pp.  243-249.  Thomas  Warton's  History  of 
English  Poetry  (3  vols.  Lond. :  1774-81.  Ed.  by  W.  C.  Hazlitt. 

4  vols.      Lond.:   1871),  though   a   storehouse  of  learning  (to 
which  the  editors,  Price  and  Hazlitt,  have  materially  added), 
has  no  philological  basis,  begins  loosely  with  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury and  closes  with  the  end  of  the  sixteenth.     W.  J.  Court- 
hope's   History  of  English   Poetry  (vol.   I.     Lond. :    1895)  is 
announced  for  completion  in  five  volumes  by  1900.     The  first 
volume,  which  discusses  the  Middle  Ages,  the  influence  of  the 
Roman  Empire,  the  encyclopaedic  education  of  the  Church,  and 
the  feudal  system,  leads  us  to  hope  for  a  valuable  and  last- 
ing contribution  to  English  literary  history,  although  the  philo- 
logical quality  of  the  work  has  been  adversely  criticised  by 
some  excellent  scholars.     Vol.  II  (Lond. :   1897)  treats  of  the 
Renaissance,  the  Reformation,  and  the  Influence  of  the  Court 
and  the  Universities. 


376  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Of  foreign  histories  of  English  poetry,  Elze  mentions  Al. 
Biichner  (Gesch.  d.  englisch.  Poesie  von  der  Mitte  d.  14.  bis 
zur  Mitte  d.  19.  Jahrhunderts.  2  vols.  Darmstadt :  1855) 
and  S.  Gatschenberger  (Gesch.  d.  englisch.  Dichtkunst.  Lond.  : 
1874),  the  latter  of  which  he  condemns.  Histories  of  special 
types,  such  as  Collier's,  Ward's,  and  Klein's  of  the  drama, 
will  be  mentioned  elsewhere  in  this  work  under  the  appropriate 
heads.  Biographical  surveys  of  English  poetry,  such  as  Phillips's 
Theatrum  Poetarum  (Geneva  :  1824);  Samuel  Johnson's  Lives 
of  the  most  eminent  English  poets  ;  Gibber's  Lives  of  the 
Poets  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  to  the  Time  of  Dean  Swift 
(3  vols.  Lond.:  1753.  On  Robert  Shiels's  share  in  the  author- 
ship, see  references  given  in  Elze,  Grundr.,  p.  248)  ;  Austin 
and  Ralph's  Lives  of  the  Poets  Laureate  (Lond.  :  1853)  ; 
Walter  Hamilton's  Poets  Laureate  of  England  (Lond.  :  1878)  ; 
Minto's  Characteristics  of  English  Poets  from  Chaucer  to 
Shirley  (Lond.  :  1874)  ;  Gostwick's  English  Poets  (Lond. : 
1875);  Masson's  Essays,  Biographical  and  Critical,  chiefly 
on  the  English  poets  (Cambr. :  1856)  ;  and  W.  M.  Rossetti's 
Lives  of  Famous  Poets  (Lond.:  1878)  display  in  no  instance 
that  combination  of  continuity  and  comprehensiveness  which  is 
requisite  to  a  history.  The  biographical  histories  of  Collier, 
Morell,  Pryde,  Thomas  Wright  (Biographia  Britannica  Literaria. 
2  vols.  Lond. :  1842-46),  and  the  English  Men  of  Letters 
series,  edited  by  John  Morley,  do  not  treat  poetry  as  a  separate 
subject.  The  biographical  treatment  of  literary  periods  has 
proved  decidedly  successful  in  the  hands  of  such  writers  as 
Gosse  (Jacobean  Poets,  N.  Y.  :  1894 ;  Seventeenth  Century 
Studies,  Lond.  :  1885),  and  E.  C.  Stedman  (Victorian  Poets. 
Lond.:  1875). 

The  more  important  general  histories  of  English  literature 
may  be  studied  as  experiments  (none  entirely  successful)  in 
method,  or  as  indexes  to  the  materials  of  a  history  of  poetry. 
Henry  Morley's  English  Writers  (n  vols.,  beginning  1887; 


A.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  377 

vol.  XI  entitled  Shakespeare  and  his  Time  under  James  I)  is 
the  most  ambitious  attempt  in  this  field,  replete  with  informa- 
tion and  suggestion,  but  loose-jointed  in  style  and  method. 
His  First  Sketch  of  English  Literature  deserves  examination, 
as  do  the  histories  (some  of  them  described  in  Elze,  Grundr., 
pp.  243-244)  by  Chambers,  Craik,  Welsh,  Shaw,  Spalding, 
Thos.  Arnold,  Tuckerman,  Pancoast.  Of  more  importance 
are  ten  Brink  (Gesch.  d.  englischen  Literatur.  2  vols.  Berl. : 
1877.  The  Beginnings  to  the  Renaissance,  vol.  I,  trans,  by 
H.  M.  Kennedy,  N.  Y.  :  1889  ;  vol.  II,  trans,  by  W.  C.  Rob- 
inson, N.  Y.  :  1893);  Taine  (5  vols.  Paris:  1885;  trans, 
by  H.  van  Laun  ;  new  ed.  4  vols.,  1883)  ;  Korting  (Grundr. 
zur  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Lit.  Miinster  :  1887.  Unfortunately  the 
treatment  of  recent  authors  lacks  discrimination);  Scherr  (His- 
tory of  Engl.  Lit. ;  trans,  from  the  German  by  M.  V.  Lond. : 
1882),  and  Stopford  Brooke  (Primer  of  Engl.  Literature). 

Of  histories  of  special  periods  no  extended  list  need  be 
given.  The  following  are  the  most  commendable  illustra- 
tions of  method  :  Stopford  Brooke,  Early  English  Literature 
(N.  Y. :  1892)  ;  R.  Wiilker,  Grundriss  zur  Gesch.  d.  ags.  Lit. 
(Leipz.:  1885);  G.  Saintsbury,  Hist.  Elizab.  Lit.  (Lond.:  1888); 
Whipple,  Lit.  of  Age  of  Elizabeth  (Boston:  1871);  Hazlitt, 
Lit.  of  the  Age  of  Elizabeth,  etc.  (Lond.  :  1852)  ;  H.  Hettner, 
Gesch.  d.  engl.  Lit.,  1660-1770  (Braunschw.  :  188-1)  ;  A.  Bel- 
jame,  Le  public  et  les  hommes  de  lettres  en  Anglet.  au  i8e 
siecle  (Paris  :  1883)  ;  E.  Gosse,  Hist,  of  Eighteenth  Century 
Literature  (Lond.  :  1889);  Mrs.  Oliphant,  Lit.  Hist.  Engl.  in  the 
end  of  the  i8th  and  beginning  of  the  igth  century  (3  vols. 
Lond.  :  1889)  ;  Mrs.  Oliphant  and  F.  R.  Oliphant,  The  Vic- 
torian Age  of  Engl.  Literature  (2  vols.  Lond.  :  1892)  ;  Saints- 
bury,  History  of  Nineteenth  Century  Literature  (Lond.  :  1896). 

/'.  Of  histories  of  American  literature,  the  more  important 
are  Moses  Coit  Tyler's  History  of  American  Colonial  Literature 
(4  volumes  published)  ;  C.  F.  Richardson's  American  Litera- 


378  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

ture,  and  E.  C.  Stedman's  Poets  of  America.  Less  pretentious, 
but  useful  works  are  H.  A.  Beers'  Outline  Sketch  of  American 
Literature  ;  Brander  Matthews'  Introduction  to  American  Liter- 
ature ;  White's  Philosophy  of  American  Literature  ;  Nichol's 
American  Literature  ;  Pattee's  History  of  American  Literature  ; 
Pancoast's  and  Painter's  Introductions  to  American  Literature, 
and  Katharine  Lee  Bates'  American  Literature.  For  various 
studies  of  authors  and  phases,  see  the  notes  to  the  histories  by 
Matthews  and  Pattee.  The  most  important  contribution  to 
biography  is  the  American  Men  of  Letters  series.  Materials 
are  indicated  in  Whitcomb's  Chronological  Outlines,  in  Tyler, 
in  Stedman  and  Hutchinson's  Library  of  American  Literature, 
in  Beers'  Century  of  American  Literature,  and  in  the  Handbook 
by  Adams  and  Cleveland. 

j.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  histories  of  poetry  in  gen- 
eral:  F.  A.  Hoffmann,  Poetry,  its  Origin,  Nature,  and  History 
(2  vols.  Lond. :  1884);  L.  Jacobowski,  Die  Anfange  der  Poesie 
(Dresden  :  1891  ;  see  §  17)  ;  E.  Quinet,  De  1'histoire  de  la 
poesie,  in  CEuvres  completes,  vol.  IX  (a  study  of  national 
traditions  in  poetry.  The  author  treats,  in  turn,  of  the  Greek 
epos,  the  Rhapsodists,  the  influence  of  the  Greek  epics  on 
Greek  religion  and  political  unity  ;  of  the  romance  epics,  the 
French  epics,  Celtic  traditions,  the  Arthuriad,  Carlovingian 
epics,  etc.  ;  of  the  German  epics,  the  Scandinavian  and  Slavic. 
Quinet  pays  especial  attention  to  Niebuhr's  theory  of  primitive 
Roman  poetry,  which  he  undertakes  to  confute) ;  Bouterwek, 
Geschichte  der  Poesie  und  Beredsamkeit  seit  dem  Ende  des 
13.  Jahrhs.  (12  vols.  Gottingen  :  1801—19  ;  brought  to  the 
present  by  Brinckmeyer)  ;  Fritzsche,  Ueber  die  Anfange  der 
Poesie  (Chemnitz  :  1855)  ;  J.  D.  Hartmann,  Versuch  einer 
allgemeinen  Geschichte  der  Poesie  von  den  altesten  Zeiten  an 
(2  vols.  Leipz.  :  1797-98  ;  comprehensive  in  intent,  but  handi- 
capped by  limited  material  and  the  lack  of  more  modern  philo- 
logical apparatus)  ;  K.  Rosenkranz,  Handbuch  einer  allgemeinen 


A.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETRY.  379 

Geschichte  der  Poesie  (3  vols.  Halle  :  1832),  and  his  Die 
Poesie  und  ihre  Geschichte  (Konigsberg  :  1855)  ;  C.  Fortlage, 
Vorlesungen  iiber  die  Geschichte  der  Poesie  (Stuttgart  und 
Tubingen  :  1839).  For  other  authorities  reference  may  be  made 
to  §  17  above,  and  to  Boeckh's  Encykl.  d.  philol.  Wissensch., 
p.  751,  where  will  be  found  most  of  the  titles  given  above,  and 
to  the  histories  of  literature  in  general  of  Hallam,  Demogeot, 
Laharpe,  Sismondi,  Villemain,  Bougine  (Handbuch  d.  allgem. 
Litt.-Gesch.  "  nach  Hermann's  Grundriss."  5  vols.  Zurich  : 
1789-92),  Eichhorn,  Friedr.  Schlegel,  Wachler  (Handbuch  d. 
Gesch.  d.  Litteratur.  4  vols.  Leipz.  :  1833),  Grasse  (Lehr- 
buch  d.  allgem.  Litt.-Gesch.  aller  bekannten  Volker  d.  Welt. 
3  vols.  Dresden  u.  Leipz.  :  1837-54),  Theodor  Mundt 
(Gesch.  d.  Litt.  d.  Gegenwart,  von  1789  an.  2.  Aufl.  Leipz.  : 
1853),  Fr.  von  Raumer  (Allg.  Litt.-Gesch.).  Full  titles  of 
many  of  these  also  will  be  found  in  §  17,  and  in  Boeckh, 
Encykl.,  pp.  746,  747,  and  above.  For  further  bibliography, 
see  B.  Schmitz,  Encyclopadie  d.  philol.  Studiums  d.  neueren 
Sprachen  (2.  Aufl.  Leipz.:  1876),  pp.  76-78. 
See  also  §  18,  II,  III,  above. 


CHAPTER   VI. 

THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS. 

§  21,  B.  The  student  should  first  familiarize  himself  with 
the  poetics  of  Plato  and  Aristotle  (see  §§  8,  9,  and  20,  above, 
and,  for  texts  and  translations  of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  the  Ap- 
pendix to  this  volume),  and  especially  with  such  treatises  as 
Butcher's  Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine  Arts  and  Bywater's  Com- 
mentary on  Aristotle's  Poetics,  which,  soon  to  be  issued  from 
the  Clarendon  Press,  promises  to  be  of  decided  worth.  The 
theories  of  Plotinus,  Longinus,  Quintilian,  and  Horace  should 
also  find  a  place  in  this  preliminary  study.  The  influence 
of  Longinus,  for  instance,  is  obvious  in  productions  as  recent 
as  Shaftesbury's  Characteristics  and  Addison's  Pleasures  of 
the  Imagination ;  of  Horace's  Ars  Poetica,  the  long-continued 
vitality  is  in  a  general  way  known  to  every  student.  The  spe- 
cial investigator  will  naturally  desire  to  follow  the  course  of 
poetic  theory  through  the  Latin  treatises  (particularly  mediaeval 
and  renaissance)  devoted  to  that  subject ;  and  for  him  the  fol- 
lowing list  is  inserted.  Other  students  may  prefer  to  turn  to  the 
sections  dealing  with  English,  French,  and  German  poetics. 

i.  An  exhaustive  list  of  LATIN  TREATISES  in  modern  times 
will  be  found  in  Friedrich  von  Blankenburg's  Litterarische 
Zusatze  zu  Sulzer's  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schonen  Kiinste 
(3  vols.  Leipz.  :  1796-98,  article  '  Dichtkunst '  passim,  from 
which  much  of  the  following  enumeration  is  taken).  Some 
of  the  more  important  authors  are  as  follows  :  Johannes  Gar- 
landia,  whose  treatise,  written  in  1260,  is  of  merely  antiquarian 
interest  ;  Dante,  the  second  book  of  whose  De  Vulgari  Elo- 


§21,  B.]       THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  381 

quio  contains  observations  on  Italian  verse  (concerning  their 
authenticity,  see  Blankenburg,  i :  386) ;  Antonio  da  Tempo, 
whose  Sumina  Artis  Ritmici  Vulgaris  (about  1332  ;  publ.  Venet. : 
1509)  describes  contemporary  forms  of  poetry;  Raf.  Reggius, 
Horatii  Opera,  with  the  commentaries  of  the  scholiasts ;  Hele- 
nius  Acron  and  Pomponius  Porphyrion  (Pad.  :  1481);  Marco 
Girolamo  Vida,  whose  De  Arte  Poetica  (Poeticorum  Libri  Tres. 
Cremona  :  1520)  emphasized  the  Horatian  tradition  and  exer- 
cised an  influence  on  the  French  classical  school  (see  Bat- 
teux,  Les  quatres  poe'tiques,  Paris  :  1771  ;  and  Cook's  reprint 
of  Horace,  Vida,  and  Boileau,  with  translations  by  Howes, 
Pitt,  and  Soame,  "  The  Art  of  Poetry,"  Boston  :  1892)  ;  N.  B. 
Campiano,  In  Artem  Poeticam  Primordia  (Venet.  :  1522)  ; 
Janus  Parrhasius,  whose  commentary  on  the  Ars  Poetica  of 
Horace  appeared  in  1531  (Naples;  in  Paris,  1533);  Alex. 
Paccius,  edition  of  Aristotle's  Poetics  with  notes  (Venet.  : 
1536,  Greek  and  Latin);  Franc.  Robortelli,  Poetics  of  Aristotle 
with  commentary  on  Horace's  Ars  Poetica,  and  articles  on 
various  forms  of  Poetry  (Flor.  :  1548;  Bas. :  1555);  Girol. 
Fracastor,  Naugerius  (Ven.:  1555)  ;  A.  S.  Minturno,  De  Poetica 
Libri  Sex  (Venet.  :  1559)  ;  Vine.  Madius  and  Bart.  Lombardus, 
an  edition  of  Aristotle's  Poetics  with  explanations  and  com- 
mentary on  the  poetics  of  Aristotle  and  Horace  (Venet.  :  1550)  ; 
Georg.  Fabricius,  whose  edition  of  Horace  (Bas.  :  1555)  con- 
tains commentaries  by  several  moderns ;  J.  A.  Viperani,  De 
Poetica  Libri  Tres  (Antv.  :  1558  and  1579),  whose  commen- 
tary, following  minutely  the  divisions  of  the  Epistle  to  the 
Pisos,  treats  but  scantily  the  nature  and  kinds  of  poetry  in 
general  (Blankenburg,  i':  387)  ;  Petr.  Victorius,  the  poetics  of 
Aristotle"  with  a  commentary  (Flor.:  1560  and  1573,  Greek 
and  Latin) ;  Julius  Caesar  Scaliger,  whose  Poetices  Libri 
Septem  is  indispensable  for  the  comprehension  of  classical 
forms  of  verse  (Gen.  :  1561).  The  third  and  fifth  books 
(Idea  and  Criticus)  abound  in  conventional  classifications  of 


382  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  21. 

figures  and  poetic  values,  but  the  sixth,  Hypercriticus,  dis- 
plays a  genuine  appreciation  of  Horace  and  Ovid,  and  will 
furnish  the  student  with  numerous  details  necessary  to  the 
history  of  poetics.  Though  Scaliger  did  not  possess  the  high 
poetic  sense,  he  was,  as  regards  scholarship  and  method,  the 
founder  of  the  early  modern  school  of  criticism.  In  1565 
Fabricius  produced  his  De  Re  Poetica,  a  somewhat  independent 
and  original  treatise  (Libri  Quattuor.  Antv.  :  1565).  Aldus 
Manutius  produced  a  commentary  on  Horace's  Ars  Poetica 
(Venet. :  1576);  Joh.  Sturm,  a  similar  commentary  (Strasb.  : 
1576)  ;  Lor.  Gutnbara,  De  Perfecta  Poeseos  Ratione,  etc.  (Rom.: 
1576);  Heinr.  Stephanus  (Paris  :  1577  and  1588),  editions  of 
Horace  with  treatise  on  the  Ars  Poetica  ;  Ant.  Riccoboni,  Aris- 
totle's Poetics  and  Rhetoric  with  notes  (Venet.:  1579.  Note 
also  his  Poetic.  Aristotel.  per  paraphrasin  explicans  et  non- 
nullas  L.  Castelvetry  captiones  refellens,  Vic.  :  1584;  and  his 
Praecepta  Aristotelis  cum  praeceptis  Horatii  collata,  Pad. : 
1592).  He  is  followed  by  Th.  Correa,  commentary  on  the  Ars 
Poetica,  and  De  Antiquit.,  etc.,  Poesis  (Rom.:  1586);  Frd. 
Ceruto,  De  Re  Poetica  (Ver. :  1588);  Jac.  Pontanus,  whose 
Poeticarum  Institutionum  Libri  Tres  (Ingolst. :  1594  and 
1597)  treats  of  the  nature  of  poetry  and  poetic  imitation,  the 
relation  of  poetry  to  art,  of  the  grades  and  kinds  of  poetry, 
and  of  the  material  and  the  purpose  of  the  art ;  Ant.  Possevin, 
Tractatio  de  Poesi  ethica,  humana  et  fabulosa,  collata  cum 
vera,  honesta  et  sacra  (Lugd.  :  1595)  ;  Macarius  Mutius,  De 
Ratione  scribendi  Poemata  (published  with  the  preceding)  ; 
Dan.  Heinsius,  edition  of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  published  with 
Heinsius's  treatise  De  Constitutione  Tragoediae  (Lugd. :  1611 
and  1643,  Greek  and  Latin);  Paol.  Beni,  edition  of  Aristotle's 
Poetics  with  a  Commentary  (Pad.  :  1613)  and  his  Platonis 
Poetica  (Ven. :  1622);  Aelius  Donatus,  De  Arte  Poetica  Libri 
Tres  (Rom.  :  1631);  Gerard.  Joh.  Vossius,  De  Artis  Poeticae 
natura  et  constitutione  Liber  (Amst. :  1647),  and  his  Poeticarum 


B.-]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  383 

Institutionum  Libri  Tres  (Amst.  :  1647),  both  of  them  influ- 
ential in  the  history  of  classical  criticism,  though  heavy  and 
conventional  in  the  treatment  of  poetic  kinds  and  forms  ;  Vit. 
Bering,  De  Arte  .  Poetica  Natura,  etc.  (Hafn. :  1650)  ;  Fdr. 
Rappolt,  Poetica  Aristotelica,  seu  Veteris  Tragoediae  expositio 
(Lips. :  1679)  ;  Carlo  Renaldini,  the  third  part  of  the  first  vol- 
ume of  whose  Philosophia  Rationalis  (Pad.:  1681)  contains, 
according  to  Blankenburg  (i  :  388),  a  tolerable  poetics  ;  Joh. 
Jac.  Mescolius,  Artis  Poeticae  Institutiones  (Flor.  :  1692) ; 
J.  G.  Muller,  De  Natura  Media  Poes.  inter  Philos.  et  Histor. 
(Jena  :  1707) ;  Jos.  Trapp,  whose  Praelectiones  Poeticae  (Oxon. : 
1716)  were  the  first  lectures  delivered  from  the  chair  of  poetry 
at  Oxford  afterwards  occupied  by  Thos.  Warton,  Spence,  Lowth, 
Arnold,  etc. 

2.  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  POETICS  IN  ENGLAND.1 —  Since 
there  is  no  history  of  English  poetics,  the  student  may,  per- 
haps, best  approach  the  subject  by  glancing  through  general 
histories  of  the  literature ;  histories  of  literary  periods,  like 
Gosse's  Modern  English  Literature  and  Saintsbury's  Nine- 
teenth Century  Literature ;  histories  of  periods  of  criticism, 
like  F.  E.  Schelling's  Poetic  and  Verse  Criticism  of  the  Reign 
of  Elizabeth,  P.  Hamelius'  Die  Kritik  in  der  englischen  Lit- 
teratur  des  17.  u.  18.  Jahrhs.  (Leipz. :  1897),  and  Wylie's  Evo- 
lution of  English  Criticism  from  Dryden  to  Coleridge  ;  general 
literary  discussions  of  a  period,  such  as  C.  H.  Herford's  Age  of 
Wordsworth  (Lond.  :  1897)  ;  and  sketches,  such  as  Professor 
Vaughan's  Introduction  to  a  volume  of  selections  entitled  English 
Literary  Criticism  (Lond.  :  1896).  J.  M.  Bray's  History  of  Eng- 
lish Critical  Terms  (Boston:  1898),  just  issued,  will  be  useful. 
The  Materials  and  Methods  of  this  investigation  are  as  follows  : 
(a)  Materials.  —  Of  two  kinds  :  those  that  yield  direct,  and 
those  that  yield  inferential  or  circumstantial  information.  The 

l  The  author  of  this  chapter  has  in  preparation,  and  hopes  within  a  few  years  to 
complete,  a  history  of  the  subject. 


384  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

former  class  includes  Theories  of  Poetry  and  Histories.  The 
Theories  take  the  form  of  general  treatises  on  the  principles  : 
philosophical,  such  as  Hume's  Dissertation  on  Tragedy,  or 
literary,  such  as  Sidney's  Defense  of  Poesy,  or  Stedman's 
Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry ;  and  of  special  treatises,  which 
may  in  their  turn  be  formal  criticisms  of  individual  poets  or 
poems,  such  as  Macaulay's  Essay  on  Montgomery,  or  Addison's 
papers  on  Paradise  Lost,  or  occasional  appreciations,  such  as  the 
numerous  '  commendatory  verses,'  '  recommendatory  poems,' 
prologues,  epilogues,  eulogia,  dedications,  and  prefaces,  and 
the  replies  thereto,  that  are  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  standard 
collections  of  English  poetry.  In  like  manner  the  Histories  of 
Poetry  are  general,  like  Warton's,  or  special  —  dealing  with 
types,  movements,  periods,  schools,  or  the  biographies  of  poets. 
Under  the  head  of  biographies  would  fall,  for  instance,  the 
works  of  our  first  modern  antiquaries,  Leland  and  Bale.1 

The  materials  from  which  we  may  obtain  inferential  infor-. 
mation  are  (i)  early  treatises  on  the  sister  art  of  Rhetoric  ; 
(2)  collections  of  poetry,  as  representative  of  the  critical  taste 
of  successive  periods,  for  instance,  Tottel's  Miscellany  (1557)  ; 
the  Paradise  of  Dainty  Devices  (1576);  A  Gorgious  Gallery  of 
Gallant  Inventions  (1578)  ;  A  Handefull  of  Pleasant  Delites 
(1584)  ;  the  Phoenix  Nest  (1593)  ;  England's  Helicon  (1600) ; 
A  Poetical  Rhapsody  (1602)  ;  or  books  of  '  quotations  digested 
under  a  commonplace,'  like  the  Belvidere  or  the  Garden  of  the 

1  Of  these,  the  former  (1506-52)  left  behind  him  in  manuscript  five  volumes  of 
Collectanea,  the  fourth  of  which  (completed  about  1545)  contains  his  Commentarii  de 
Scriptoribus  Britannicis,  presented  in  1632  to  the  Bodleian  Library.  His  judg- 
ments lack  discrimination  and  historical  perspective  ;  but  the  facts  upon  which  they 
are  based  were  conscientiously  and  industriously  collected  and  have  proved  of  great 
value  to  succeeding  historians.  To  this  manuscript  John  Bale  (Bishop  of  Ossory) 
was  very  largely  indebted  in  the  preparation  of  his  Illustrium  Majoris  Britanniae 
Scriptorum  Summarium  in  quinque  centurias  divisum,  1548  (later  editions,  1557  and 
1559).  The  Summary  is  of  historical  rather  than  critical  consequence,  for,  although 
based  upon  the  originals  consulted  by  Leland  or  by  Bale  himself,  it  abounds  in  error 
and  prejudice. 


B.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  385 

Muses  (1600),  to  which  reference  is  made  in  the  Return  from 
Parnassus,  and  so  on  to  the  amusing  anthology  prepared  by 
Goldsmith,  and  the  collections  of  Campbell,  Chalmers,  and  men  of 
later  day  ;  (3)  poetical  contributions  found  available  by  periodi- 
cals of  successive  ages  :  the  Annuals,  the  Friendship's  Offerings, 
Forget-me-nots,  Literary  Souvenirs,  Amulets,  Keepsakes  and 
Gems  of  the  third  decade  of  this  century,  and  the  magazines  that 
have  taken  their  place  ;  (4)  the  chronicles  of  literary  clubs, — 
the  Areopagus,  the  Mermaid,  Scribblerus,  Turk's  Head,  so  far 
as  accessible,  —  their  rolls  of  members,  their  records,  and  the 
various  evidences  of  the  influence  exerted  by  them  upon  poetic 
and  critical  taste ;  (5)  catalogues  of  libraries,  such  as  the 
Edinburgh  catalogue  of  the  books  bequeathed  by  Drummond 
of  Hawthorn  den  ;  (6)  evidence  from  any  source  regarding  the 
demand  for  poetry  —  a  reflex  of  the  poetic  consciousness  of 
the  day.  For  instance,  the  history  of  editions  of  the  standard 
poets.  The  editorial  history  of  Chaucer's  works  helps  in  this 
particular  to  form  a  background  for  the  history  of  poetics.1 

In  addition  to  these  subdivisions  of  material  must  be  cited 
another,  inferential  in  general  character,  but  of  a  negative  qual- 
ity. This  is  (7)  the  literary  satire,  as  we  find  it  in  the  poems 
of  Bishop  Hall,  Churchill,  and  Byron,  in  satiric  comedy,  such 
as  the  Return  from  Parnassus,  the  Rehearsal,  the  Knight  of 
the  Burning  Pestle,  and  in  the  literary  lampoon. 

Such  are  the  more  evident  classes  of  material.  The  order 
of  investigation  should  be  chronological  in  respect  of  individual 
productions  of  all  these  kinds,  not  in  respect  of  the  complete 

1  Although  there  had  been  printed  some  half-dozen  editions  of  Chaucer's  poems 
between  1475  (Caxton's)  and  1526  (Pynson's),  the  first  collection  of  his  works  was  not 
made  till  1532,  by  Thynne.  That  the  interest  in  Chaucer  did  not  entirely  abate 
during  the  i6th  century,  second  half,  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  two  other  editors, 
Stowe  and  Speght,  published  editions  in  1561  and  1598,  respectively.  Speght's  edi- 
tion held  its  own  through  the  i  ;th  century.  For  the  history  of  poetic  appreciation  as 
indicated  by  the  demand  for  Chaucer's  works,  see  J.  W.  Hales's  article,  Chaucer,  Diet. 
Nat.  Biog.,  Skeat's  Chaucer,  Lounsbury's  Studies  in  Chaucer,  ten  Brink's  Chaucer,  etc. 


386  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

contribution  of  one  author  at  a  time,  or  of  one  class  of  material. 
But  in  the  presentation  of  results  as  a  logical  whole  it  will  be 
necessary  at  times  to  deviate  from  chronological  arrangement. 
The  following  sketch  of  English  poetics  aims  merely  to  outline 
the  principal  periods  and  movements  of  theory  and  practice  ; 
but  it  does  not  pretend  to  exhaust  the  bibliography  of  any  one 
period,  nor,  so  far  as  secondary  materials  go,  to  do  more  than 
mention  a  few. 

With  regard  to  the  first  class  of  secondary  material  mentioned 
above,  it  will  be  for  the  convenience  of  the  student  that  its 
earliest  specimens  should  be  listed  at  once.  The  rhetorics  of 
the  1 5th  and  i6th  centuries  have  their  specific  importance  for 
the  rhetorician,  but  for  the  student  of  poetics  they  are  useful 
merely  as  evidence  of  a  critical  movement  that  was  collateral 
but  not  intimately  related.  The  following  enumeration  is  pre- 
pared from  notes  principally  furnished  by  Dr.  F.  I.  Carpenter 
of  the  University  of  Chicago. 

Early  English  Rhetorics.  —  Doubtless  the  first  rhetoric 
printed  in  England  was  that  of  Traversanus  (Fratris  laurencii 
guilelmi  de  Saona  prohemium  in  novam  rhetoricam.  Apud 
villam  sancti  Albani.  1480.  "The  first  book  printed  at  St. 
Albans,"  Brit.  Mus.  Cat.).  Next  followed  the  section  on  Rheto- 
ric in  Hawes's  Pastime  of  Pleasure  (written,  1506  ;  published 
1517).  But  the  first  complete  rhetoric  in  the  English  language 
was  the  Arte  or  Crafte  of  Rhetoryke,  by  Leonard  Cox,  a  school- 
master at  Reading,  and  a  friend  of  Erasmus,  Melancthon, 
Leland,  etc.  There  were  two  editions,  one  without  date  (circa 
1524  in  early  bibliographies  and  in  the  British  Museum  cata- 
logue, but  more  probably  circa  1530),  and  one  dated  1532.  It 
covers  the  subject  of  Invention  only,  and  is  mainly  a  para- 
phrase of  the  Institutiones  Rhetoricae  of  Melancthon,  1523, 
with  additions  from  the  De  Rhetorica,  libri  tres,  1519,  of  the 
same  author,  and  others  by  Cox  himself.  (Result  of  an  in- 
vestigation made  by  Dr.  F.  I.  Carpenter,  1897.)  This  was 


/?.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  387 

followed,  but  not  until  1550,  by  Richard  Sherry's  Treatise  of 
Schemes  and  Tropes  (London). 

The  next  rhetoric  in  English  was  that  of  Thomas  Wilson, 
The  Arte  of  Rhetorique  (1553),  ordinarily  cited  as  the  earli- 
est English  treatise  in  criticism.  It  is  a  sequel  to  the  same 
author's  Arte  of  Logique  (1551),  in  the  third  edition  of  which 
(1553)  appears  the  famous  "example  of  doubtful  writing" 
taken  from  Roister  Doister.  In  the  Rhetorique  the  author 
does  battle  for  simple,  native  English  as  opposed  to  the  corrupt 
words  and  phrases  imported  by  the  learned,  the  travelled, 
and  the  affected.  But  the  work  does  not  vitally  affect  the 
history  of  poetics.  Still  less  influence  in  that  direction  was 
exercised  by  Richard  Rainolde's  Foundacions  of  Rhetorike, 
"  imprinted  by  Jhon  Kingston  "  ten  years  later  (1563),  although 
it  makes  a  meagre  reference  or  two  to  the  nature  of  poetry, 
e.g.,  "  that  poetes  first  invented  fables,"  and  cites  the  practice 
of  Ovid  and  other  classical  writers.  As  a  text-book  it  is  signifi- 
cant of  the  widening  literary  interests  of  the  period. 

After  Wilson's  Arte  several  other  rhetorics  followed  in  the 
second  half  of  the  century,  all  having  popular  and  practical 
rather  than  scientific  or  critical  aims.  Such  were  Richard 
Sherry's  Treatise  of  the  Figures  of  Grammar  and  Rhetoric 
(Lond.  :  1555  ;  English  and  Latin.  A  revision  of  his  treatise 
of  1550)  ;  William  Fulwood's  The  Enimie  of  Idleness:  Teach- 
ing the  maner  and  stile  how  to  indite,  compose,  and  write 
all  sorts  of  Epistles  and  Letters  (Lond.:  1568;  and  later 
editions  :  the  illustrations  chiefly  borrowed  from  Cicero  and 
Latin  literature  on  the  one  hand,  and  from  Politian,  Ficino, 
and  other  Italian  scholars  of  the  Renaissance  on  the  other)  ; 
the  Arc-adian  Rhetorike  pf  Abraham  Fraunce  (Lond.,  n.  d., 
entered  1588  :  restricted  to  "  Eloqution,"  [style,  diction,  etc.,] 
and  "Pronuntiation"  [elocution];  short  precepts  and  definitions, 
illustrated  by  examples  drawn  from  Sidney,  Spenser,  the  Greek 
and  Latin  poets,  Tasso,  Du  Bartas,  Boscan,  and  Garcilasso,  all 


388  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  21. 

given  in  the  original.  Indicative  of  the  interest  in  foreign 
literatures  at  this  period). 

Next  appeared  Henry  Peacham's  Garden  of  Eloquence,  con- 
teyning  the  Figures  of  Grammer  and  Rhetorick  (Lond. :  1577, 
and  1593,  revised:  a  description  of  figures  and  tropes,  with 
illustrations  from  the  Bible  and  the  ancient  classics  ;  perfunc- 
tory). Of  these  rhetorics  the  most  interesting,  however,  was 
Richard  Mulcaster's  First  Part  of  the  Elementarie  which  en- 
treateth  cheflie  of  the  writing  of  our  English  tung  (Lond. : 
1582  —  a  treatise  on  education,  an  elementary  text-book  of 
language-teaching,  and  a  practical  rhetoric,  all  in  one).  In 
parts  this  is  valuable  and  important  to  the  history  of  poetics. 
It  contains  a  strong  defense  of  the  qualities  and  possibilities  of 
the  English  language.  See  also  the  same  author's  Positions 
wherein  those  Primitive  Circumstances,  etc.,  of  earlier  date 
in  the  century,  but  intended  as  the  second  part  of  the  work 
of  which  that  above  forms  the  first.  (Reprinted,  ed.  Quick. 
Lond.:  1888.)  Mulcaster's  work  was  followed  by  an  inade- 
quate treatise,  Dudley  Fenner's  (?)  The  Artes  of  Logike  and 
Rhetorike  (1584,  1588?  1592,  etc.):  a  translation  on  elocu- 
tion, style,  and  pronunciation,  dwelling  chiefly  on  figures. 

(b}  Methods.  —  The  history  of  poetics  covers  the  provenience 
both  of  principles  of  judgment  and  principles  of  method  in  the 
criticism  of  poetry  :  the  former  being  the  formulation  of  poetic 
theory  whether  by  poet  or  critic ;  the  latter  being  the  rationale  of 
the  critical  attitude  and  habit  of  procedure,  whether  formulated 
by  the  critic  or  only  to  be  inferred  from  his  practice  (see  §  4,  //, 
above).  In  what  follows,  the  development  of  method,  even 
though  only  in  principle,  has  been  regarded  as  a  contribution 
to  practical  poetics,  and  the  general  term  criticism  has  been 
frequently  used  for  the  particular,  poetic  criticism.  The 
historical  schools  and  movements  are  best  differentiated  by 
reference  to  their  theoretical  or  practical  nature  :  if  theoreti- 
cal, according  to  the  peculiar  criteria  of  judgment  adopted 


B.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  389 

(moral,  aesthetic,  or  metaphysical)  ;  if  practical,  according  to 
the  methods  preferred  (personal,  impartial ;  analytic,  synthetic ; 
static,  genetic  ;  historical,  comparative  ;  interpretative,  recon- 
structive). The  periods  of  poetics  in  England  vary  according 
to  the  basis  of  division.  Symonds  calls  them  Classic,  Romantic, 
and  Scientific  on  the  basis  of  literary  influence,  and  with  refer- 
ence to  the  source  of  theory.  Vaughan,  judging  principally  by 
development  of  method,  divides  into  the  period  of  the  Eliza- 
bethans and  Milton,  of  which  the  typical  critic  is  Sidney ;  the 
period  from  the  Restoration  to  the  French  Revolution,  which 
begins  with  Dryden  and  ends  with  Johnson  ;  and  the  period 
from  the  Revolution  to  the  present  day,  beginning  with  Words- 
worth and  Coleridge  and  represented  in  its  earlier  phases  by 
Lamb,  Hazlitt,  and  Carlyle.  The  student  would,  however,  do 
well  to  inquire  whether  more  scientific  divisions  might  not 
result  from  considering  the  successive  stages  of  method  and 
theory  taken  each  in  relation  to  the  other  (the  plan  adopted  in 
the  following  outline);  or  the  development  of  the  vehicle  of 
criticism  (pamphlet,  dedication,  essay  paper,  review,  daily 
newspaper,  etc.);  or  the  extension,  by  social  progress,  of  the 
audience  addressed  (academic,  histrionic,  the  "  town,"  the 
court,  the  patron,  the  tea-table,  the  club,  the  publisher,  and, 
finally,  the  country  as  well  as  the  circle  of  the  'cultivated').  It 
may,  indeed,  be  questioned  whether  anything  but  convenience 
is  gained  from  the  division  into  periods  —  always  more  or  less 
arbitrary. 

(c)  The  Outline.  —  During  the  First  Period,  if  we  may  call 
it  so,  poetics  is  chiefly  Theoretical  and  largely  Academic.  The 
first  important  movement  is  that  in  favor  of  classical  versifica- 
tion started  by  Ascham  (The  Scholemaster.  Bk.  II,  1570)  and 
kept  in  motion  by  Gabriel  Harvey  and  Spenser  (Three  Proper 
and  Wittie  Familiar  Letters,  1579,  1580)  and  by  the  Society  of 
the  Areopagus  to  which  they  belonged.  Spenser  soon  aban- 
doned the  attempt  at  quantitative  versification,  but  the  move- 


390  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

ment  was  forwarded  by  the  practice  of  Sidney  (in  the  Arcadia), 
by  the  advocacy  of  William  Webbe  (Discourse  of  English 
Poetrie,  1586),  and  by  Campion's  Observations  on  the  Art  of 
English  Poesie,  1602.  (For  most  of  these  earlier  treatises,  see 
Haslewood's  Ancient  Critical  Essays,  1815  ;  Arber's  Reprints; 
and  Egerton  Brydges's  Censura  Literaria.) 

But  meanwhile  a  counter-movement,  dating  from  Gascoigne's 
Certayne  Notes  of  Instruction  concerning  the  Making  of  Verse 
or  Rhyme  in  English,  1575,  had  been  steadily  gaining  head. 
In  this  early  protest  against  traditional  conventionality  —  a 
protest  in  itself  the  forerunner  of  romantic  poetics —  the  leaders 
are  James  VI  (Tfeatise  of  the  Airt  of  Scottis  Poesie  :  Essays 
of  a  Prentise,  1584),  and  Puttenham  (Arte  of  English  Poesie, 
1589),  who  did  for  the  vernacular  that  in  the  way  of  sensible 
criticism  which  Nashe  (Epistle  Prefatory  to  Greene's  Mena- 
phon,  1589,  and  Pierce  Penilesse,  1592)  did  for  the  academic 
affectations  of  the  day.  The  influence  of  these  men  and  of 
Samuel  Daniel  (Defense  of  Rhime,  1602)  in  confirming  the 
native  possibilities  of  our  language,  style,  and  prosody  cannot 
be  overestimated. 

The  question  of  poetic  criticism  had,  however,  been  ap- 
proached in  these  earlier  times  from  the  side  of  morals  as  well 
as  from  that  of  form.  There  had  been  early  sermons  against 
Miracle  Plays  ;  and  in  Northbrooke's  Treatise  against  Dicing, 
Dancing,  Plays,  and  Interludes  (entered  for  publication,  1577), 
the  question  is  not  whether  poetry  should  wear  this  or  that 
form,  but  whether  it  should  exist  at  all.  In  1579  Gosson  had 
published  his  School  of  Abuse,  a  virulent  attack  upon  "  poets, 
pipers,  players,  jesters,"  etc.,  in  which  he  condemned  the 
drama  on  the  ground  of  its  immoral  effect.  He  was  answered 
by  Lodge  in  the  Defense  of  Poetry,  Music,  and  Stage  Plays, 
privately  circulated  in  1579.  But  Lodge  makes  the  mistake  of 
accepting  his  opponent's  premise  and  trying  to  justify  poetry 
on  the  ground  of  its  disciplinary  value.  Not  so,  Sir  Philip 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  391 

Sidney,  who,  while  insisting  upon  the  moral  value  of  poetry 
and  the  drama,  transfers  the  justification  of  their  existence 
to  broader  and  more  philosophical  premises.  He  holds  that 
art  is  the  highest  manifestation  of  nature  ;  and  that  to  awaken 
pleasure  is  an  essential  of  art  —  an  end,  not  a  means  to  moral 
instruction.  He  adjudicates  in  like  manner  the  strife  between 
the  advocates  of  classical  quantitative  verse  and  the  dramatic 
unities  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  apostles  of  the  natural  move- 
ment on  the  other,  by  designating  the  advantages  of  either 
practice  in  its  appropriate  place.  (For  a  good  critique  of 
Sidney's  Defense  of  Poesie,  see  Vaughan's  Lit.  Crit.  See 
also  editions  by  Evelyn  Shuckbrugh,  Cambridge,  1891,  and 
by  A.  S.  Cook,  Boston,  1890.)  The  Defense  of  Poesie  was 
written  between  1581  and  1585,  was  read  in  manuscript  by 
many,  but  not  published  till  1595.  Gosson,  to  whom  answer 
is  made  in  the  Defense,  had  meanwhile  returned  to  the  attack. 
In  1581  he  produced  Plays  Confuted  in  Five  Actions,  and 
was  again  met  by  Lodge  in  the  Address  prefixed  to  the  Alarum 
Against  Usurers  (1584).  Webbe,  too,  and  Puttenham  took 
notice  of  the  moralistic  controversy  —  the  latter,  however,  with 
the  better  presentation  of  the  dramatic  case.  Sir  John  Haring- 
ton  (Brief  Apology  for  Poetrie,  prefixed  to  the  translation  of 
Orlando  Furioso.  Lond.  :  1591)  adopts  much  the  same  ground 
as  Sidney  and  Puttenham.  From  the  former,  whom  he  greatly 
admires,  he  borrows  largely  (see  Nation,  48  :  224)  ;  of  the  latter 
he  expresses  a  qualified  commendation.  Nash,  in  his  Pierce 
Penilesse,  turns  the  flank  of  the  anti-dramatic  critics  by  an  attack 
upon  the  "  dunstical  sermons "  that  they  would  set  up  as 
counter-stimulants,  and  he  tries  to  prove  "plays  to  be  no 
extreme  but  a  rare  exercise  of  virtue."  William  Vaughan's 
Golden  Grove  (completed  in  1599,  published  1600)  has  one  or 
two  chapters  on  art  and  poetry  which  feebly  argue  their  inferi- 
ority to  nature,  and  conclude  the  immorality  of  the  drama ;  but 
this  conclusion  is  reversed  in  his  Golden  Fleece,  written  a 


392  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

quarter  of  a  century  later.  No  attack  of  the  sixteenth  century 
upon  the  drama  is  more  bitter  than  John  Rainolde's  Overthrow 
of  Stage  Playes,  which,  published  in  1599,  arose  from  a  contro- 
versy with  Dr.  Gager  and  gave  birth  to  one  with  Dr.  Gentiles 
concerning  the  same  matter. 

Worthy  to  be  mentioned  in  the  same  category  with  Sidney 
and  Puttenham,  because  of  his  noble  and  catholic  conception 
of  poetry,  is  Dr.  Joseph  Hall,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  whose  satires 
demand  careful  examination.  Books  I-III  were  published  in 
1597,  the  remaining  books  in  1598.  He  gives  us  one  of  the 
earliest  descriptions,  satirical  of  course,  of  a  Critic's*  Club,  and 
refutes  contemporary  extravagances  in  language,  versification, 
and  style.  Ben,  Jonson  appears  in  1598  with  the  defense  of 
poetry  spoken  by  Lorenzo  in  Every  Man  in  His  Humour;  and 
even  here  he  sounds  a  truer  note  than  all  but  the  best  before 
him.  For  the  next  few  years  he  is  engaged  in  the  controversy 
with  Marston  and  Dekker,  a  purely  personal  affair.  But  in 
the  play  just  mentioned,  as  well  as  in  Every  Man  out  of  His 
Humour,  1599,  and  The  Poetaster,  1601,  he  takes  a  more 
general  view.  He  is  already  an  advocate  of  the  classical  uni- 
ties and  of  the  didactic  office  of  poetry  ;  and  he  has  formed 
opinions  concerning  the  nature  of  idealization  and  the  progres- 
sive continuity  of  dramatic  form.  Francis  Meres's  Comparative 
Discourse  of  our  English  Poets  with  Greek,  Latin,  and  Italian 
Poets  in  the  Palladis  Tamia,  1598,  is  an  attempt  at  an  histori- 
cal survey  somewhat  after  the  manner  of  Webbe  and  Puttenham. 
The  comparative  criticism  is,  of  course,  crude,  but  it  is  of  value 
in  fixing  dates  and  facts.  The  author  is  indebted  to  Webbe, 
Puttenham,  Ascham,  and  Sidney. 

The  most  important  contribution  to  poetics  between  Sidney's 
Defense  and  Jonson's  Discoveries  is  to  be  found  in  the  Second 
Book  of  the  Advancement  of  Learning,  1605.  Looking  at 
poetry  from  both  the  ethical  and  aesthetic  sides,  Bacon  anti- 
cipates Wordsworth  and  Carlyle  ;  emphasizing  the  difference 


ff.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  393 

between  idealization  and  actuality,  he  foreshadows  Cowley/ 
Dryden,  and  Addison ;  indicating  the  religious  force  of  poetic 
thought,  he  strikes  a  chord  to  which  Dennis,  Wordsworth, 
Coleridge,  and  Arnold  respond.  His  ideas  of  poetic  justice 
are  in  advance  of  contemporary  theory,  and  his  insistence  upon 
the  imaginative  appeal  as  the  prime  poetic  characteristic  is  in 
anticipation  of  Addison.  It  looks,  indeed,  as  if  Addison  might 
have  obtained  his  classification  of  the  qualities  productive  of 
imaginative  pleasure  from  Bacon's  "  more  ample  greatness, 
more  perfect  order,  and  more  beautiful  variety."  Bacon  is  also 
the  founder  of  literary  history ;  he  calls  for  the  genetic  method 
of  critical  study,  by  cause  and  effect,  movement,  influence,  rela- 
tion, change,  decay,  and  revival  ;  and  he  suggests  the  elasticity 
of  literary  forms  or  types  ;  ideas  all  essential  to  the  under- 
standing of  literature  as  an  historical  growth.  Just  about 
the  same  time,  1605,  the  other  great  critic  of  the  later  Eliza- 
bethan Age,  Ben  Jonson,  was  pursuing  his  study  of  classical 
criticism  and  promising  a  translation  of  Horace's  Ars  Poetica 
(see  preface  to  Sejanus,  1605).  That  he  was  busied  at  .this 
early  period  with  a  commentary  on  the  Ars  Poetica  is  a  signifi- 
cant fact.  For  it  furnishes  a  clue  to  the  real  beginnings  of  that 
Latin-classical  conventionalism  which  exercised  so  decided  an 
influence  on  the  poetics  of  the  next  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years.  The  Horatian  influence  proceeded  from  Ben  Jonson 
rather  than  from  any  other  English  writer  ;  not  only  as  regards 
form,  but  as  regards  the  didactic  motive.  On  these  points  con- 
sult the  prefaces,  prologues,  epilogues,  to  his  various  plays ; 
and  his  Timber,  of  which  presently. 

Minor  contributions  to  poetics  before  the  year  1625  were 
Edmund  Bolton's  Hypercritica,  parts  of  which  were  written, 
probably,  between  1600  and  1603  (Arber  dates  the  work  1620; 
it  contains  a  comparative  estimate  of  poets  by  a  man  who 
expressly  disclaims  any  of  the  qualifications  of  a  critic  of  poetry  ; 
but  it  is  historically  useful) ;  Thomas  Hey  wood's  Apology  for 


394  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Actors,  1612  (advances  somewhat  beyond  the  moralistic  defense 
of  the  drama,  advocating  art  for  pleasure's  sake  ;  acknowledges 
the  critical  services  of  Puttenham  and  Meres);  J.  G.'s  (John 
Green's)  Refutation  of  the  Apologia  for  Actors,  1615  ;  Michael 
Drayton's  Epistle  of  Poets  and  Poesy,  1619  ;  and  Henry  Peach- 
am's  the  Compleat  Gentleman,  —  purloined  in  large  part  from 
Puttenham  (the  Bodleian  copy  is  dated  1622). 

So  far  criticism  is  principally  a  matter  of  theory,  not  yet  of 
method  in  application.  But  to  form  a  just  idea  even  of  the 
theory,  it  is  not  sufficient  to  read  only  such  treatises  as  are 
mentioned  above.  The  student  should  correct  and  broaden 
the  conceptions  thus  derived  by  careful  comparative  study  of 
the  popular  taste,  as  shown  by  the  style  of  poetry  most  sought 
in  that  day.  Not  only  should  the  works  of  the  greater  authors 
be  studied,  but  the  various  poetical  collections,  such  as  Tot- 
tel's  Miscellany,  1557  ;  the  Paradise  of  Dainty  Devices,  1576  ; 
England's  Helicon,  1600,  etc.  And  consideration  should  be 
given  to  the  aesthetic  opinions  of  the  poets  themselves,  so  far 
as  they  may  be  determined  from  their  practice  or  their  informal 
utterances. 

During  the  Second  Period  in  the  history  of  English  poetics, 
there  is  a  Movement  toward  Practical  Criticism.  The  idea  of 
literary  history  had  been  enunciated  by  Bacon  in  1605,  and 
crude  attempts  at  the  practice  of  it  had  been  made  by  Webbe, 
Puttenham,  and  others ;  but  nothing  had  been  accomplished  in 
the  statement  of  critical  method,  of  the  "true  office  of  the 
critic,"  his  qualifications,  limitations,  and  aim,  before  Ben  Jon- 
son  wrote  his  Timber,  or  Discoyeries.  Though  not  printed 
till  1641,  this  work  was  certainly  in  course  of  composition  as 
early  as  1626.  Jonson  insists  that  the  critic  shall  have  poetic 
potentialities  and  shall  judge  of  the  work  as  a  whole.  His 
observations  on  the  essentials  of  poetry  are  distinguished  by 
insight.  His  judgments  were  sometimes  prejudiced,  but  his 
doctrines  are  those  of  a  great  critic.  He  is  the  founder  of  the 


B.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  395 

English  classical  school  of  criticism,  but  he  is  by  no  means 
responsible  for  the  narrower  rules  of  the  latter  part  of  the 
1 7th  century,  — misinterpreted  from  Rapin's  Reflections  sur  la 
poetique  d' Aristotle,  and  Le  Bossu's  Traite  du  poeme  epique,  — 
nor  for  the  fixed  canons  of  the  i8th,  crystallized  from  Andre 
Dacier's  commentary  on  Bossu,  and  from  Boileau's  L'Art  poe- 
tique, 1674.  As  Rapin  and  Boileau  were  much  more  liberal 
and  constructive  than  their  disciples,  so  was  Ben  Jonson.  The 
dignity  of  his  poe'tic  ideal  is  proved  by  such  poems  as  the  first 
Ode  to  Himself  ;  the  didactic  quality  of  his  criticism  by  his 
defense  of  comedy  in  the  same  ode  ;  his  freedom  from  formal 
conventionality  by  his  estimates  of  contemporary  poetry. 

During  the  latter  portion  of  Jonson's  life  the  moralistic  attack 
upon  the  stage  was  persistently  maintained  ;  in  a  less  impor- 
tant degree  by  such  pamphlets  as  A  Short  Treatise  against 
Stage  Plays,  1623,  and  Lenton's  Young  Gallant's  Whirligig, 
1629  ;  but  with  infinitely  greater  force  and  ultimate  result  by 
Prynne's  Histriomastix,  1632,  which,  at  first  failing  of  its  object, 
afterwards  produced  a  progeny  of  anti-dramatic  literature,  and 
was  finally  efficient  in  closing  the  theatres,  1642.  Still  later, 
the  spirit  of  Prynne  was  revived  in  the  Prince  de  Conti  and 
Jeremy  Collier  (see  below,  remarks  on  the  Immorality  of  the 
Stage). 

We  return  to  legitimate  criticism  with  the  Earl  of  Stirling's 
(Sir  William  Alexander)  Anacrisis,  written  1634,  —  published 
with  Drummond's  Works,  1711,  —  which,  although  ordinarily 
overlooked,  contains  a  statement  of  theory  and  methods  con- 
siderably in  advance  of  the  age.  This  important  work  is  to 
be  found  in  none  of  the  quartos  of  Drummond  in  the  Bodleian, 
but  appears  in  Dr.  Charles  Rogers's  Memorials  of  the  Earl  of 
Stirling  (2  vols.  Edinb.  :  1877),  vol.  II,  pp.  205-210.  Stirling 
is  followed  by  Milton,  whose  position  in  poetics,  like  that  of 
Sidney  and  of  Bacon,  is  above  strife.  The  poet  Clothes  the 
spirit  of  freedom  which  characterizes  our  first  admirers  of 


396  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

the  classics,  Greene,  Marlowe,  Peele,  and  the  rest,  with  the 
form  of  restraint,  of  which  Ben  Jonson  had  been  the  advocate. 
Although  a.  Puritan,  he  cuts  the  ground  from  under  the  puri- 
tanical objection,  by  consecrating  poetry  to  the  glorification  of 
God  and  the  justification  of  God's  ways  toward  man  ;  while,  at 
the  same  time,  he  maintains  that  the  vision  divine  can  come 
only  to  him  who  is  purified  of  passion.  The  purification  of 
the  passion  of  the  spectator  or  reader  is  asserted  in  the  Intro- 
duction to  Samson  Agonistes,  1671  ;  the  high  ideal  and  func- 
tion of  poetry,  in  the  third  contribution  to  the  Smectymnuus 
controversy,  the  Reason  of  Church  Government  urged  against 
Prelatry,  1642  ;  the  relation  of  poetry  to  rhetoric  and  logic  as 
means  of  education,  in  the  Tractate  on  Education,  1644. 

For  the  parts  played  by  Waller,  Denham,  and  Cowley  in 
the  "  refinement  of  English  verse  "  and  the  promotion  of  the 
so-called  classical  movement,  which,  originating  in  its  larger 
features  with  Ben  Jonson,  was  furthered  by  Dryden  and  reached 
its  climax  in  Pope  and  Dr.  Johnson,  reference  may  be  made  to 
Edmund  Gosse's  From  Shakespeare  to  Pope,  his  Seventeenth 
Century  Studies,  and  his  Modern  English  Literature.  Waller's 
rehabilitation  of  English  style  and  the  heroic  couplet  was  begun 
in  1621.  And  as  late  as  1690,  in  the  Preface  to  the  Second 
Part  of  his  Poems,  probably  written  by  Bishop  Atterbury,  we 
find  his  poetic  principles  acknowledged  as  they  were  in  the 
heyday  of  their  youth.  The  relative  significance  of  Waller 
and  Denham  (Cooper's  Hill,  1640)  in  the  history  of  verse  is 
stated  by  Dryden  in  the  Preface  to  the  Rival  Ladies,  1664. 
For  Waller's  enunciation  of  principles  the  student  should  study 
the  Verses  upon  Ben  Jonson,  On  Mr.  John  Fletcher's  Plays,  To 
Mr.  George  Sands  on  his  translation  of  some  part  of  the  Bible, 
and  In  Answer  of  Sir  John  Sucklin's  Verses.  Another  herald 
of  coming  fashions  was  Denham's  Preface  to  Sir  Richard 
Fanshaw's  Translation  of  Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  1647.  Some 
thirty  years  later  the  convictions  there  expressed  were  accepted 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  397 

by  the  Earl  of  Roscommon  and  restated  in  his  more  famous 
Essay  on  Translation.  Meanwhile  Sir  William  Davenant's 
Gondibert,  in  1650,  furthered  by  precept  and  example  the  mode 
of  verse  adopted  by  Waller  and  Denham  and  the  affectation 
of  Christian  themes  suggested  by  the  former.  The  Preface  to 
Hobbes  is  a  moralistic  plea  for  poetry  ;  but  it  has  germs  of 
that  poetic  estimate  of  religious  subject-matter  which  Dennis 
afterwards  emphasized  in  his  Advancement  of  Poetry.  The 
Reply  to  Davenant  by  Hobbes  is  even  better  worth  study,  for 
it  contains  an  attempt  at  classifying  poetry  on  a  new  principle, 
as  well  as  a  philosophical  aperfit  of  fancy,  imagination,  and 
imitation,  and  a  study  of  the  relation  of  poetry  to  philosophy. 
For  the  aesthetic  judgment  of  Davenant's  contemporaries  the 
student  should  read  the  commendatory  verses  attached  to  Gondi- 
bert and  to  other  poems  of ,  the  day.  Denham's  Preface  of 
1656  to  his  own  Essay  on  Translation  (written  much  earlier, 
1636)  states  in  prose  the  plea  for  liberal  rendering  that  he  had 
already  advanced  in  the  verses  to  Sir  Richard  Fanshaw,  1647. 
With  the  exception  of  Milton,  Cowley  was  the  writer  of 
keenest  poetic  insight  between  Ben  Jonson  and  Dryden.  In 
his  notes  on  the  Davideis  and  his  Preface  to  his  Works,  1656, 
he  reverts  to  the  critical  principles  enunciated  by  Bacon,  and 
takes  his  stand  as  an  advocate  of  the  analytic  and  historical 
methods.  While  recognizing  the  poetic  possibilities  of  morals 
and  religion,  he  is  capable  also  of  a  larger  view,  not  utilitarian 
nor  didactic.  Still  more  striking  is  the  philosophical  sympathy 
with  Bacon  which  Cowley  displays  in  his  Address  to  the  Royal 
Society  —  a  species  of  English  Academy  to  the  establishment 
of  which  the  poet's  Proposition  for  the  Advancement  of  Learn- 
ing (1661)  had  contributed.  The  Ode  or  Address,  written 
between  1662  and  1667,  states  clearly  the  relation  of  philos- 
ophy to  authority  and  to  reason,  the  function  of  philosophy 
in  respect*  of  nature,  and  the  difference  between  the  poetry  of 
wit  and  the  poetry  of  the  philosophic  imagination.  In  his 


398  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

appreciation  of  nature,  her  beauty  and  her  significance,  the 
poet  distinctly  anticipates  Wordsworth  (see  Grosart,  Cowley, 
vol.  I,  p.  civ).  Contemporary  verses  on  Cowley's  death,  1667, 
and  on  Milton's  Paradise  Lost,  which  was  published  in  the 
same  year,  afford  an  insight  into  the  literary  opinion  of  the  day. 
On  that  epic  the  earliest  laudatory  criticism  was  uttered  in  1669 
by  Milton's  nephew,  Edward  Phillips  ;  and  the  next  by  Marvel, 
in  verses  written  about  1672. 

During  the  interval  between  Ben  Jortson's  first  attempts  in 
critical  method  and  Cowley's  Proposition  for  the  Advancement 
of  Learning,  there  had  been  a  certain  development  of  practical 
poetics,  but  it  was  marked  rather  by  the  greater  frequency  of 
applied  criticism  than  by  any  improvement  of  the  method. 
With  the  foundation  of  the  Royal  Society,  however,  which 
(although  its  object  was  the  advancement  of  science)  pledged 
itself  to  the  cultivation  of  a  lucid,  forcible,  and  easy  English 
style,  the  vehicle  of  criticism  was  assured  ;  and  on  the  ordering 
and  simplification  of  the  style  there  naturally  followed  a  system- 
atization  of  principles.  Cowley  is  indirectly  the  promoter  of 
the  refined  manner  and  liberal  method  which  characterize  the 
poetics  of  Dryden,  and  he  is  directly  the  forerunner  of  the 
return  to  nature  and  philosophy  which  characterizes  Wordsworth 
and  Coleridge. 

The  Third  Period  of  English  poetics,  then,  beginning  with 
the  Foundation  of  the  Royal  Society,  1662,  and  continuing 
until  the  publication  of  the  Tatler,  1709,  accomplished  the 
Refinement  of  Theory  and  Method.  Its  principal  representa- 
tives are  Cowley,  Dryden,  Mulgrave,  Roscommon,  Bentley,  and 
Dennis. 

To  give  a  complete  account  of  Dryden's  contributions  to 
poetics  would  be  impossible  in  this  place.  A  list  of  his  writ- 
ings will  be  found  in  §  20  above.  The  first  of  his  "  famous 
prolegomena"  was  the  Dedication  to  Lord  Orrery,  prefixed 
to  the  Rival  Ladies,  1664.  Here  his  desire  to  improve  style 


&.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  399 

and  versification  found  expression  in  a  plea  for  a  literary 
tribunal  like  the  French  Academy.  But  the  preference  for 
rhyme  announced  in  this  Dedication  being,  in  1665,  challenged 
by  Howard  (Preface  to  Four  New  Plays),  there  was  precipitated 
the  discussion  which  produced  Dryden's  first  great  effort  in 
poetics,  the  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy,  1668.  This  essay,  which 
strives  to  show  that  modern  drama  excels  the  ancient,  displays 
advance  both  in  method  and  poetic  judgment.  In  method  the 
discussion  proceeds  from  an  accepted  definition  to  the  histori- 
cal application  of  the  same  and  the  analysis  of  representative 
examples.  In  the  realm  of  theory  or  judgment  the  emphasis, 
meanwhile,  is  laid  upon  typical  idealization,  consistency  between 
dramatic  content  and  poetic  garb,  and  the  importance  of  the 
criterion  of  imaginative  appeal.  There  is  also  evident  a  con- 
sciousness of  the  interpretative  function  of  poetry,  and  of  the 
value  of  a  wider  aesthetic  appeal  (to  many  emotions  rather  than 
one  or  two).  Even  at  this  stage  of  his  career  Dryden  displays 
a  catholicity  of  taste  —  not  merely  classical  nor  romantic,  not 
all  didactic,  nor  hedonistic  —  that  savors  of  and  recalls  Bacon, 
Milton,  and  Cowley. 

In  the  Defense  of  the  Essay  of  Dramatic  Poesy,  1668, 
Dryden  strengthens  his  plea  for  rational  idealization  by  attack- 
ing the  false  principles  of  personal  criticism  and  unregulated 
taste  advanced  by  Sir  Robert  Howard.  In  the  Preface  to  the 
Conquest  of  Granada,  1669-72,  the  romantic  spirit  prevails  —  a 
sense  of  the  relation  between  poetry  and  the  age,  and  a  tendency 
to  look  at  literary  productions  from  the  comparative  point  of 
view.  In  the  Preface  to  the  State  of  Innocence,  1674,  Dryden 
expresses  his  admiration  of  Paradise  Lost,  thus  early  record- 
ing the  catholicity  of  his  poetic  taste.  This  Preface  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  in  his  career  as  a  critic.  It  discusses 
the  essence  of  poetry,  the  qualifications  of  the  critic,  and  the 
methods  of  criticism.  The  canons  of  judgment  are  considered 
with  reference  to  nature,  imitation,  and  imagination.  The  critic 


400  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

must  be  of  poetic  temperament,  must  judge  of  poetry  according 
to  its  species,  must  make  organic  judgments,  and  must  know 
when  to  rely  upon  authority,  when  on  reason.  This  essay 
marks  the  opening  of  the  second  stage  of  Dryden's  criticism. 
He  now  abandons  the  advocacy  of  rhyme,  and  begins  to  feel 
his  way  among  more  difficult  problems.  In  the  Preface  to  All 
for  Love,  1678,  he  adds  to  the  principles  of  method  already 
enunciated  that  of  the  milieu,  —  a  revolt  against  the  authority 
of  foreign  criticism  (French  or  classical)  in  English  poetics. 
In  the  matter  of  the  milieu,  he  anticipates  Hegel,  Taine,  Bru- 
netiere  (§  9,  I,  B  3).  Equally  revolutionary  and  equally  scien- 
tific are  not  a  few  of  the  theoretical  principles  advanced  in  this 
Preface. 

Omitting  for  the  present  the  Preface  to  Oedipus,  1678,  the 
student  may  pass  to  the  Heads  of  an  Answer  to  Rymer 
(written  1678,  but  not  published  till  1711),  which  displays 
another  change  of  front  and  another  advance  in  poetic 
judgment. 

Rymer  had  in  1678  brought  out  a  work  entitled  the  Trage- 
dies of  the  Last  Age,  Considered  and  Examined  by  the  Practice 
of  the  Ancients,  and  by  the  Common  Sense  of  all  Ages.  This 
essay  was  a  natural  sequence  of  his  own  translation,  made  in 
1674,  of  Rapin's  Reflections  on  Aristotle's  Treatise  of  Poesie. 
In  the  Tragedies  of  the  Last  Age,  Rymer,  insisting  that  the 
Aristotelian  laws  should  be  observed  by  modern  tragedy,  tests 
three  of  Fletcher's  plays  accordingly,  and  condemns  them  for 
their  nonconformity.  It  happens  that  on  the  fly-leaf  of  a  copy 
of  the  Tragedies  of  the  Last  Age  Dryden  wrote  his  Heads  of 
an  Answer  to  Rymer's  Remarks.  Since  these  Heads  were  not 
intended  for  publication,  we  here  have  Dryden  as  he  was  in  him- 
self. We  find  him  objecting  to  the  rigor  of  the  ancient  classical 
tradition  and  formulating  his  own  ideas  as  to  the  procedure 
of  criticism.  This,  indeed,  is  the  beginning  of  Dryden's  third 
stage  of  development,  a  period  of  widening  and  deepening  in 


B.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  401 

natural  and  scientific  criticism.  He  insists  upon  a  standard  of 
judgment  at  once  logical  and  historical,  upon  the  recognition 
of  development  in  literary  types,  upon  the  principles  of  milieu 
and  national  variety,  and  upon  the  adoption  accordingly  of 
criteria  which  shall  make  allowance  for  the  modificatkm  of 
literary  conditions.  The  Grounds  of  Criticism  in  Tragedy,  pub- 
lished by  him  the  next  year,  is  much  more  conservative,  but  at 
bottom  maintains  the  breach  with  the  school  of  the  ancients. 
This  breach  is  also  evident  in  the  Preface  to  Oedipus,  1678,  and 
still  more  noticeable  in  the  Epistle  Dedicatory  of  the  Spanish 
Fryar,  1681.  But  while  Dryden  more  steadily  advocates  the 
natural  development  of  tragedy,  he  by  no  means  sanctions  lack 
of  restraint  or  of  propriety.  The  advance  in  historical  method 
and  in  analysis  of  principles  is  continued  until  with  the  Preface 
to  Don  Sebastian  the  critic  may  be  regarded  as  entering  upon 
his  last  and  most  profitable  period  of  development.  Before 
examining  the  productions  of  that  period,  however,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  review  the  course  of  contemporary  criticism. 

In  1669  had  appeared  Edward  Phillips's  Compendious 
Enumeration  of  the  Poets  (with  praise  of  Milton's  Paradise 
Lost),  and  in  1675  his  Theatrum  Poetarum.  To  1680  belongs 
Roscommon's  Translation  of  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,  which 
realized  what  Ben  Jonson  had  in  1641  attempted,  and  there- 
fore crowned  the  movement  toward  which  the  glorification  of 
Horace  had  since  1605  steadily  contributed.  So  far  as  the 
style  of  translation  is  concerned,  Roscommon  followed  in  the 
footsteps  of  Denham  (1647,  l^S^)  and  Waller.  It  must  be 
remembered,  too,  that  Roscommon  had  especially  at  heart 
the  improvement  of  the  English  language  and  of  style  ;  and 
that,  during  the  '  seventies '  he  had  prosecuted,  though  without 
formal  success,  a  plan  for  the  foundation  of  an  Academy  like 
that  of-  France,  a  scheme  in  which  he  was  seconded  by  Dryden 
and  others.  (The  history  of  attempted  literary  academies  in 
England  is  worthy  of  careful  study.) 


402  LITERARY  CRITIC  ISM.  [§21. 

In  1682  was  published  the  Earl  of  Mulgrave's  (afterward 
Duke  of  Buckinghamshire)  Essay  upon  Poetry.  This  had  a 
decided  effect  in  confirming  the  "  correct  taste " ;  but  the 
author  was  not,  by  any  means,  a  mere  advocate  of  Horace  and 
the  French  models.  Roscommon's  Essay  on  Translated  Verse 
followed  in  1684,  characterized  by  independence  of  judgment, 
observation,  and  a  respect  for  the  English  language,  and  '  wit ' 
as  contrasted  with  the  French.  The  advocacy  of  free  transla- 
tion was,  however,  not  new  ;  nor  was  the  encomium  on  Paradise 
Lost  the  first  of  its  kind.1 

The  publication  of  the  Athenian  Gazette  in  1690,  and  of  La 
Croze's  Works  of  the  Learned,  the  same  year,  is  significant  of 
the  widening  interest  in  critical  literature  ;  also  the  appear- 
ance of  the  Athenae  Oxonienses  (2  vols.  1691,  1692)  by  Antony 
a  Wood,  who  may  be  considered  to  be  the  founder  of  modern 
biography  in  England.  His  Fasti,  or  Annals,  followed  later. 
Subsequent  authorities  on  literary  and  scholastic  biography 
were  Hearne,  Anthony  Hall,  and  Bishop  Tanner,  for  whom  see 
the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography. 

Dryden's  last  and  ripest  season  of  critical  production  dates 
from  the .  publication  of  the  Preface  to  Don  Sebastian,  1690. 
This  preface  marks  a  growing  confidence  in  an  aesthetic  large 
enough  to  subsume  the  hitherto  mechanical  and  inflexible  law 
of  tradition  ;  and  it  reaffirms  the  best  of  his  conclusions  con- 
cerning practical  and  theoretical  poetics.  The  Discourse  on 
the  Original  and  Progress  of  Satire,  1692,  1693,  illustrates  his 
method  of  literary  comparison  ;  while  the  Dedication  of  the 
Third  Miscellany,  1693,  reiterates  the  necessity  of  regarding 
literature  as  a  historical  growth  and  of  applying  criteria  suit- 

l  Talking  of  encomia,  the  flood  of  verses  that  deluged  the  merits  of  Waller  in 
1688  is  of  interest ;  it  bears  upon  its  bosom  many  a  relic  of  contemporary  criticism. 
The  student,  indeed,  should  make  a  point  of  examining  all  such  verses  with  a  view  to 
collating  the  criteria  of  poetry  as  applied  in  successive  ages.  As  far  as  Waller  is 
concerned,  the  literary  estimate  of  his  more  thoughtful  contemporaries  is  furnished  by 
the  Preface  to  the  Second  Part  of  his  Poems,  1690. 


B.-\  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  403 

able  to  the  literary  period  and  habit  concerned.  The  last  of 
these  utterances  was  provoked  by  the  appearance  in  1692  or 
1693  of  A  Short  View  of  Tragedy,  etc.,  in  which  the  indefati- 
gable Rymer  poured  contempt  upon  the  irregularities  (from  the 
point  of  view  of  ancient  dramatic  criticism)  of  Shakespeare, 
Corneille,  and  others  of  a  modern  cut.  A  field  of  criticism 
still  somewhat  broader  is  entered  by  Dryden  in  his  Parallel  of 
Poetry  and  Painting,  1695,  prefixed  to  the  translation  of  Du 
Fresnoy's  Art  of  Painting.  Here  he  looks  upon  poetry  from 
outside  as  well  as  from  within,  and  draws,  though  in  a  naive 
and  speculative  fashion,  one  or  two  distinctions  between 
literary  and  plastic  arts.  This  is  one  of  the  first  attempts, 
if  not  the  first,  at  comparative  aesthetics,  that  England  had 
produced. 

Meanwhile  the  moralistic  objection  to  the  stage,  the  last 
manifestation  of  which  had  taken  form  in  Histriomastix  some 
sixty  years  before,  —  the  moralistic  objection  was  again  pre- 
paring for  expression.  It  made  itself  mildly  obvious  in 
Richard  Blackmore's  Preface  to  Prince  Arthur,  1695.  This, 
however,  although  it  attacked  Dryden,  was  not,  for  some  two 
years,  deemed  worthy  of  his  notice.  But  in  1696  John  Dennis, 
who  had  already  proved  his  ability  in  the  Impartial  Critic,  of 
1693,  an  answer  to  Rymer's  Short  View  of  Tragedy,  and  in  his 
Miscellanies  in  Verse  and  Prose  of  the  same  year,  made  a 
vigorous  reply  to  Blackmore,  entitled  Remarks  upon  Prince 
Arthur.  This  is  one  of  our  earliest  reviews  in  the  modern 
critical  sense.  Dennis  was  an  ardent  and  judicious  admirer  of 
Dryden, —  perhaps  better  equipped  to  espouse  his  cause  than 
was  any  other  of  his  generation.  But  Dennis's  reply  has  left 
no  mark  upon  history.  For  the  irritation  of  the  religious- 
minded  was  soon  to  find  expression  in  such  condemnation  of 
the  Restoration  Drama  as  should  render  Blackmore's  assist- 
ance and  Dennis's  defense  equally  trivial.  In  1698,  Jeremy 
Collier  spoke  out ;  and  his  "  Short  View  of  the  Immorality  and 


404  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Prof  aneness  of  the  English  Stage,  etc.,"  prejudiced,  unhistorical, 
uncritical,  and  unfair,  as  in  many  respects  it  was,  put  an  end  to 
the  vices  —  and  to  some  of  the  virtues,  too  —  of  English  drama 
at  one  and  the  same  time.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  Collier 
undoubtedly  made  use,  in  the  preparation  of  this  work,  not  only 
of  the  manifest  English  source,  Prynne,  but  of  a  French  adap- 
tation of  Prynne,  called  Traite  de  la  comedie  et  des  spectacles 
selon  la  tradition  de  1'figlise,  written  by  Armand  de  Bourbon, 
Prince  de  Conti,  and  published  in  1667.  Accordingly,  odd  as 
it  may  appear,  the  English  stage  owes  something  of  its  reforma- 
tion to  the  quarter  whence  one  would  least  expect  reform  to 
proceed.  This  fact  seems  not  to  have  been  hitherto  noticed  by 
the  historians.  No  synopsis  of  the  Short  View  need  be  given 
here,  as  it  is  familiar  to  every  student,  and,  though  not  reprinted, 
may  be  picked  up  at  any  secondhand  bookseller's  in  England. 
For  a  list  of  the  numerous  '  Replies '  to  this  work  the  student 
should  consult  Beljame's  Le  public  et  les  hommes  de  lettres  en 
Angleterre  au  XVIII6  siecle,  1660-1744  (Paris  :  1884)  ;  and  for 
a  full  enumeration  of  Collier's  rejoinders,  the  article  '  Collier,' 
Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  Dryden's  part  in  the  controversy  was  all  the 
more  dignified,  because  he  acknowledged  the  justice,  in  one 
respect  at  least,  of  the  attack.  (See  the  Epistle  to  Motteux, 
1698.)  His  Preface  to  the  Fables,  1700,  apropos  of  a  fresh 
provocation  from  Blackmore,  made  further  reference  to  the 
affair.  But  that  is  the  matter  of  least  interest  in  the  Preface, 
which,  as  a  whole,  sums  up  what  is  best  in  Dryden's  poetics 
and  exemplifies  what  is  best  in  his  method.  In  the  same  year 
the  poet-critic  died.  He  had  outlined  the  course  that  criticism 
was  to  pursue.  Where  his  own  practice  failed,  the  failure  is  due 
to  the  age,  the  writer's  lack  of  information,  the  ignorance  of  the 
scientific  methods  necessary  for  the  prosecution  of  the  aesthetic 
and  comparative  principles  that  he  had  enunciated. 

During  the  last  years  of  the  century  two   movements  had 
gained  strength  which  were  to  set  their  mark  upon  the  criticism 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  405 

of  the  next  century,  the  philosophical  and  the  scientific-classical. 
The  former  is  represented  by  two  names  :  that  of  Locke,  to 
whose  doctrine  of  the  association  of  ideas  (Essay  concerning 
the  Human  Understanding,  1690)  Addison  refers  in  his  papers 
on  the  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,  and  whose  inquiry  into 
the  nature  of  the  mental  faculties  has  influenced  subsequent 
aesthetic  speculation  ;  and  that  of  Shaftesbury,  whose  rhap- 
sodical teaching  of  the  relation  between  the  good  and  the 
beautiful  was  to  color  the  numerous  i8th  century  treatises  on 
taste,  Addison's  included,  while  his  advocacy  of  criticism  as 
an  educative  agency  was  to  produce  the  Virtuosi,  and  with  them 
a  class  of  readers  able  to  appreciate  the  efforts  of  aesthetic 
criticism.  Shaftesbury's  Characteristics  was  not  published  till 
1711-14  ;  but  the  papers  of  which  it  is  composed  had  appeared 
at  various  dates  from  1699  on. 

The  other  movement,  the  scientific-classical,  underlies  the 
controversy  between  modern  and  ancient  learning,  and  although 
in  appearance  it  was  a  mere  battle  of  the  books,  it  in  fact 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  critical  literary  scholarship  of  the 
present  century.  The  principal  contestants  on  the  side  of 
the  moderns  were,  in  France,  Fontenelle  and  Charles  Perrault, 
1688,  as  opposed  to  Boileau  for  the  ancients.  In  England, 
Wotton,  1694,  espoused  the  cause  of  modern  literature,  while 
Sir  William  Temple,  1692,  and  later,  Swift  (Battle  of  the  Books, 
begun  1699,  published  1704),  took  the  other  side.  But  it  was 
not  until  the  question  arose  concerning  the  authenticity  of  the 
Letters  of  Phalaris,  which  Temple  had  cited  in  confirmation 
of  his  views,  that  the  quarrel  assumed  a  scientific  charac- 
ter. Boyle,  in  1697,  made  a  frivolous  attack  upon  Bentley, 
who  could  see  nothing  classical  or  even  genuine  in  '  Phalaris.' 
Bentley's  reply,  A  Dissertation  upon  the  Letters  of  Phalaris; 
1698,  is  "  the  earliest  model  of  a  new  criticism,  which  by  a  scien- 
tific method  was  to  bring  accurate  philological  knowledge  into 
relation  with  historical  research "  (Processor  Jebb,  '  Bentley,' 


406  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Eng.  Men  of  Letters  series).  In  literary  criticism  Bentley's  work 
is  the  forerunner  of  the  antiquarian,  mediaeval,  and  Old  English 
researches  which  have  helped  to  develop  historical  method  dur- 
ing the  last  one  hundred  and  fifty  years. 

In  1701  an  effort  to  bring  about  an  understanding  between 
the  combatants  was  made  by  Dennis,  in  his  Advancement  and 
Reformation  of  Modern  Poetry.  He  attempts  with  consider- 
able skill  and  some  success  to  show  that  both  sides  have  over- 
looked the  real  basis  of  difference  between  ancient  and  modern 
poetry.  He  maintains  that  the  excellence  of  ancient  poetry 
lies  in  its  religious  quality,  and  that  it  is  superior  to  the  modern 
only  when  the  modern  fails  to  avail  itself  of  the  poetic  advan- 
tages afforded  by  the  superior  emotional  and  moral  qualities  of 
Christianity.  In  this  treatise,  in  his  Large  Account  of  the  Taste 
in  Poetry  and  the  Causes  of  the  Degeneracy  of  it,  1702,  and  in 
his  Grounds  of  Criticism  in  Poetry,  1704,  Dennis  variously 
anticipates  principles  of  theory  and  method  for  the  advocacy 
of  which  credit  is  ordinarily  given  to  Addison,  Goldsmith,  and 
Wordsworth. 

'  The  Fourth  Period  in  the  history  of  English  poetics  begins 
with  the  popularization  of  criticism  by  the  essay-papers,  and 
extends  to  the  foundation  of  the  Reviews,  —  from  the  Tatler, 
1709,  to  the  Edinburgh,  1802.  It  is  distinguished  by  the  crystal- 
lization of  the  older  theories  and  methods,  and  the  preparation 
for  a  reaction  against  their  authority.  The  general  features  of 
criticism  after  the  death  of  Dryden  are  known  to  the  student, 
and  the  details  become  too  numerous  to  be  comprehended 
within  the  limits  at  our  command.  What  follows  is  conse- 
quently but  a  summary.  For  some  of  the  particulars  refer- 
ence may  be  made  to  Miss  Wylie's  work  and  the  more  recent 
treatises  of  Vaughan  and  Hamelius. 

The  history  of  periodical  literature  should  first  occupy  the 
student.  Resumes  will  be  found  in  Andrews's  History  of 
British  Journalism,  Grant's  History  of  the  Newspaper  Press, 


£.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  407 

Courthope's  Addison  (Eng.  Men  of  Letters  series),  and  in  Miss 
Bateson's  contributions  to  Traill's  Social  England.  Not  only 
the  spread  of  reading  but  the  development  of  social  life  (through 
coffee-houses,  clubs,  etc.)  tended  to  alter  the  relation  between 
critic  and  public,  and  so  to  modify  the  style  of  criticism.  With 
the  foundation  of  the  Taller  and  the  Spectator,  for  instance,  the 
style  became  more  conversational,  and  gradually  more  timely 
and  more  direct. 

The  schools  of  poetic  theory  are  during  this  period  well 
defined.  That  with  which  the  century  opened,  and  which,  in 
spite  of  growing  opposition,  maintained  its  authority  till  almost 
the  close  of  the  century,  was  characterized  by  'correctness,' 
classical  authority,  mechanical  and  personal  method,  and  fixed 
canons  of  judgment.  As  the  contemporaries  of  Dryden,  though 
not  Dryden  himself,  had  followed  the  system  of  Rapin,  which 
they  themselves  had  made  illiberal,  so  the  contemporaries  of 
Pope  and  Johnson  followed  in  the  path  of  Boileau,  which  they 
themselves  made  arid  and  strait.  The  other  school  was  the 
romantic,  led  by  Young,  Gray,  the  Wartons,  Hurd,  and  others. 
It  acquired  greater  strength  during  the  latter  half  of  the  cen- 
tury than  the  historians  ordinarily  have  noticed ;  such  force, 
indeed,  that  it  is  altogether  a  mistake  to  regard  Wordsworth's 
Preface  to  the  Lyrical  Ballads  as  the  beginning  of  the  romantic 
movement.  It  was  rather  the  climax  of  the  romantic  revolt 
which  had  sprung  into  significance  some  sixty  years  before. 

During  the  earlier  years  of  the  period,  Steele,  in  the  Tatter, 
started  the  fashion  which  Addison  followed  and  confirmed.  The 
papers  on  Paradise  Lost,  in  the  Spectator  (Dec.  31,  1711  — 
May  3,  1712),  were  one  of  the  earliest  instances  of  criticism 
applied  to  a  single  poem ;  but  it  is  not  to  be  assumed  that 
they  were  the  first,  or  that  no  one  had  appreciated  Milton 
before  Addison  wrote  these  papers.  Addison's  method  com- 
bines a  certain  liberality  of  view  with  the  application  of  classical 
canons,  but  Dryden's  had  displayed  the  same  characteristic. 


408  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

The  papers  on  the  Pleasures  of  the  Imagination  discuss  the 
nature  of  our  delight  in  peetry  more  exhaustively  than  had 
been  done  since  Dryden's  time,  but  the  criterion  of  Appeal  to 
the  Imagination,  which  Worsfold  (Principles  of  Criticism)  con- 
siders to  be  a  discovery  of  Addison's,  had  been  recognized  by 
Bacon,  Dryden,  Shaftesbury,  and  Dennis;  and  the  analysis  of 
the  qualities  productive  of  pleasure  into  Grandeur,  Beauty, 
and  Novelty  may  with  ease  have  been  derived  from  Bacon 
and  Shaftesbury.  It  is  not  the  novelty  of  Addison's  poetics, 
but  the  sanity  and  impartiality  of  his  judgment,  together  with 
the  facility  of  his  style  and  the  felicity  of  his  method,  that 
makes  him  one  of  the  greatest  of  our  critics.  To  the  earlier 
productions  of  this  school  of  '  correctness '  belong  also  Pope's 
Discourse  on  Pastoral  Poetry,  1709,  the  Essay  on  Criticism, 
1711,  and  various  papers  in  the  Guardian,  1713.  Of  the 
Essay  the  external  stimulus  may  be  found  in  the  revolt  against 
the  so-called  Gothic  and  apparently  unregulated  taste  that  had 
for  many  years  obtained  on  the  Continent. 

In  1709  appeared  Rowe's  edition  of  Shakespeare,  the  fore- 
runner of  a  series  of  editions  most  important  in  the  history  of 
applied  poetics  ;  and  in  1710-1 1  Dennis's  Three  Letters  on  the 
Genius  and  Writings  of  Shakespeare,  worthy  of  appreciative 
examination.  These  were  succeeded  by  Pope's  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism, already  mentioned,  and  that  by  the  quarrel  between  Pope 
and  Addison  on  the  one  hand  and  Dennis  on  the  other.  Swift's 
Proposal  for  Correcting  the  English  Tongue,  following  in  the 
wake  of  Cowley,  Dryden,  and  Roscommon,  strengthened  the 
classical  movement.  In  1718  appeared  Gildon's  Complete 
Art  of  Poetry,  and  in  1720  his  Laws  of  Poetry;  neither  of 
which  was  of  more  than  formal  quality.  In  1719  Addison  died. 
He  had  without  doubt  recalled  art  to  a  natural  basis  (as  he 
understood  nature),  and  had  "  drawn  the  principles  of  invention 
from  dispositions  inherent  in  the  mind  of  man  "  (Johnson,  Lives 
of  the  Poets).  He  had  done  much  "  to  produce  a  habit  of 


B.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY   OF  POETICS.  409 

reasoning  rightly  on  matters  of  taste  and  criticism  "  (Courthope), 
and  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  his  influence  was  merely  in 
the  direction  of  formal  correctness.  He  had  helped  to  cultivate 
the  judgment  of  the  public ;  so  that  the  generation  succeeding 
him  might  address  its  poetry  and  its  criticism  to  the  people 
and  not  to  the  patron.  In  1725  appeared  Pope's  Edition  of 
Shakespeare,  with  an  introductory  essay  that  is  not  by  any 
means  devoid  of  sound  critical  judgment.  In  1726  Spence 
wrote  his  classical  essay  on  Pope's  Homer;  and  in  1727  ap- 
peared the  treatise  on  Bathos,  by  Pope,  Swift,  and  Arbuthnot. 
The  former  work  displayed  true  taste,  the  latter  developed  a 
code  of  negative  poetics. 

Colley  Gibber's  Apology  for  My  Life,  an  excellent  review  of 
theatrical  performances,  was  produced  in  1740  ;  and  in  1742-43 
he  became  hero  of  the  Fourth  Dunciad.  In  1743  Pope  died. 
His  malignities  in  criticism  are  introductory  to  the  magisterial 
method  of  Johnson  and  the  literary  personalities  of  Southey 
and  Gifford.  The  canons  of  his  school  made  "  poetry  prosaic  " 
and  undermined  the  scientific  comparative  method  of  criticism 
in  process  of  construction  during  the  previous  century.  But 
his  power  shows  also  in  his  contribution  to  literary  ethics:  the 
establishment  of  independent  authorship  and  the  consequent 
destruction  of  the  habit  of  dedications.  After  him  the  influ- 
ence of  patronage  waned  steadily,  till  with  Johnson  it  expired. 
Thereafter,  the  public  and  the  publisher  became  arbiters  of 
fate  in  matters  both  creative  and  critical. 

The  philosophers  who  during  Pope's  life  exercised  an  influ- 
ence upon  aesthetic  theory  were  Hutcheson  and  Hume  ;  the 
former  by  his  Enquiry  into  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of  Beauty 
and  Virtue,  1725,  and  his  Essay  on  the  Passions  and  Affections, 
1728  (a  development  of  Shaftesbury);  and  the  latter  by  his 
Treatise  of  Human  Nature,  1739.  (On  Hume's  aesthetics,  see 
Bosanquet,  Hist.  Aesth.,  p.  261.)  Hume's  analytic  method  was 
the  complement  to  the  aesthetics  of  Burke,  Hogarth,  Kames, 


410  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

and  Reynolds.  Out  of  the  synthesis  proceeded  several  of  the 
cardinal  ideas  of  subsequent  critical  theory.  The  later  disser- 
tations of  Hume  are  sometimes  a  working  over  of  the  Treatise  ; 
but  they  should  all  be  studied.  See  §  8. 

With  Thomson's  poem,  Edward  and  Leonora,  1 739,  and  Joseph 
Warton's  Enthusiast,  or  The  Love  of  Nature,  1740,  the  Romantic 
movement  began  to  gather  strength.  Warton  called  for  a 
return  to  sincerity  of  observation  and  sanity  of  description. 
Dodsley's  Collection  of  Old  Plays  was  published  in  1744,  and 
in  1746  Joseph  Warton's  Preface  to  Odes  on  Several  Subjects. 
Poetry  was  now  fairly  embarked  on  the  romantic  stream.  In 
criticism,  too,  the  Wartons,  Goldsmith,  Young,  Gray,  Collins, 
Cowper,  and  Hurd  were  all  in  the  line  of  transition  from  the 
romanticism  of  Sidney  and  Bacon  to  that  of  Wordsworth.  But 
it  must  be  remembered  that  not  only  in  these  writers,  but  in 
Dryden  and  Dennis,  and  differently  in  Addison,  are  to  be  found 
germs  of  our  present  critical  principles  and  methods. 

Before  rehearsing  the  productions  of  the  Wartons  and  their 
followers,  we  turn  again  to  the  older  line  of  thought.  Akenside's 
Pleasures  of  the  Imagination,  frigidly  constructed  upon  the 
basis  of  Addison  and  Hutcheson,  came  out  in  1743.  In  1744 
Samuel  Johnson  made  his  appearance  with  Observations  on 
Macbeth  ;  and  in  1747  Warburton  produced  his  unfortunate  edi- 
tion of  Shakespeare.  In  1755  Johnson's  Dictionary  saw  the  light 
(note  the  Preface)  ;  and  from  this  time  the  lexicographer  was 
Dictator.  His  Lives  of  the  Poets  did  not  appear  till  1779-81, 
but  his  Shakespeare,  his  articles  in  the  Rambler,  etc.,  and  the 
concreteness  of  his  personality  enabled  him  to  set  his  mark  upon 
criticism  even  before  he  had  substantially  exemplified  his  theo- 
ries. There  is  much  sound  sense  in  the  Lives,  and  there  is 
the  'grand  style  ' ;  but  they  are  dominated  by  the  fixed  pseudo- 
Aristotelian  principles  and  the  dictatorial  method.  They  are 
significant  in  the  history  of  criticism  because  they  summarize 
not  only  the  approved  literary  opinion  of  the  day,  but  the 


B.~]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  411 

accumulated  wisdom  of  those  whose  authority  as  critics  had 
been  recognized  during  a  century. 

The  principal  contributions  to  the  Romantic  movement  in 
criticism  during  the  ascendency  of  Dr.  Johnson  in  the  Classical 
school  were  the  following  :  Spence's  Polymetis,  1747  ;  the  intro- 
ductory chapters  in  Fielding's  Tom  Jones  (directed  against  the 
belief  in  the  fixity  of  literary  types) ;  Joseph  Warton's  Prefatory 
Essay  to  the  Edition  of  the  Georgics  and  Eclogues,  1753  ; 
Kurd's  dissertations  on  the  Provinces  of  the  Several  Species 
of  Dramatic  Poetry  and  on  Poetical  Imitation,  in  his  edition 
of  Horace's  Epistles  to  the  Pisos  and  to  Augustus  (2  vols. 
Lond.),  1753;  Thomas  Warton's  Observations  on  the  Faerie 
Queene,  1754,  and  in  1757  Joseph  Warton's  Essay  on  the  Life 
and  Genius  of  Pope  (where  for  the  first  time  that  poet  is  criti- 
cally handled);  in  1759  some  of  Goldsmith's  suggestions  in  the 
Polite  Learning  and  in  the  Bee  (where  he  more  than  once  calls 
for  direct  study  of  the  people,  for  interpretative  idealization, 
and  for  a  historical  appreciation  of  literary  and  social  charac- 
teristics); Young's  Letter  to  Samuel  Richardson  on  Original 
Composition,  1759;  Gray's  Metrum,  1760-61;  Macpherson's 
Fragments  of  Ancient  Poetry,  1760,  and  the  Poems  of  Ossian, 
1762  (which  aroused  a  controversy  of  great  import  to  roman- 
ticism); Kurd's  Letters  on  Chivalry  and  Romance,  1762;  Blair's 
Critical  Dissertation  on  Ossian,  1763;  Thomas  Warton's  History 
of  English  Poetry,  1774-81  (in  which  he  acknowledges  the 
receipt  of  Gray's  outline  for  the  history);  in  1781  the  second 
volume  of  Joseph  Warton's  Life  and  Genius  of  Pope,  and  in 
1797  his  edition  of  that  poet's  works.  These  last-mentioned 
works  completed  the  preliminaries  of  the  attack  upon  the 
school  of  'correctness.'  In  1798  followed  the  brief  and  tell- 
ing preface  to  the  first  edition  of  the  Lyrical  Ballads,  and 
in  1800  the  famous  Preface  to  the  second  edition,  in  which 
Wordsworth,  in  so  far  as  he  does  not  exploit  untenable  theo- 
ries of  his  own,  sets  clearly  before  the  world  the  strength  and 


412  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

the  claims  of  the  romantic  return  to  imagination  and  nature ; 
a  return  that  affected  the  principles  and  methods  of  poetics 
as  emphatically  as  it  affected  those  of  poetry. 

The  student  must  not  fail  to  estimate  the  influence  mean- 
while exercised  by  the  writers  of  treatises  upon  aesthetics.  Of 
these  the  first  was  Burke,  whose  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  1756, 
told  directly  upon  aesthetic  speculation  in  England,  and  later 
indirectly  through  the  influence  of  Lessing  and  Kant.  For 
to  Burke  both  of  these  men  were  indebted :  Lessing  in  the 
Laocoon,  1766,  and  Kant  in  the  Kritik  der  Urteilskraft,  1790. 
Other  English  aestheticians  were  Kames  (Elements  of  Criti- 
cism, 1762),  Hogarth  (Analysis  of  Beauty,  1753),  Hume  (later 
Dissertations,  1757),  and  Reynolds  (Papers  on  the  Idler,  Dis- 
courses on  Beauty,  1758-59);  for  whom  see  §8  above.  Also 
to  be  considered  is  the  effect  of  the  impetus  given  to  histor- 
ical and  comparative  research  by  Winckelmann's  Geschichte 
der  Kunst  des  Altertums,  1764,  by  Stuart's  Antiquities  of 
Athens  (two  years  earlier),  and  by  other  works  on  the  archae- 
ology, literature,  and  art  of  the  northern  as  well  as  the 
southern  nationalities  of  Europe.  Nor  should  the  return  wave 
of  romantic  interest  from  Germany  be  ignored.  The  outward 
movement  proceeded  from  the  early  work  of  the  Wartons, 
1740-60,  from  the  revival  of  Shakespearian  scholarship,  Gray's 
interest  in  Northern  Literature,  Macpherson's  Ossian,  1762, 
Percy's  Reliques  of  Ancient  English  Poetry,  1765.  The  move- 
ment returned  from  Germany  in  Burger's  Lenore,  in  the  works 
of  Herder,  Jean  Paul,  Wieland,  and,  later,  of  the  Schlegels, 
Tieck,  and  the  Romantiker.  That  the  English  romantic  revival 
owes  anything  to  Bodmer  (1721)  and  the  German  critics  of 
the  Swiss  school  is  not  probable,  for  they  had  no  disciples 
in  England  ;  indeed,  they  themselves  drew  their  inspiration 
largely  from  English  poetry.  |  Nor  did  it  begin  with  Rousseau 
(whose  influence  shows  itself  as  early  as  with  Goldsmith),  for 
Rousseau's  Nouvelle  He'loisedid  not  appear  till  176.0.  It  would 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  413 

appear  not  unlikely  that  most  of  this  romantic  inspiration —  later 
carried  by  France  and  Germany  into  sentimentalism  —  issued 
in  England  from  Thomson,  1739,  Samuel  Richardson,  1740, 
and  Lillo  (George  Barnwell,  1731);  in  France  from  Marivaux 
and  Pre'vost,  1731,  —  but  that  both  schools  had  in  turn  derived 
it  from  the  Sentimental  Comedy  of  Sir  Richard  Steele  (The 
Funeral,  1702,  The  Lying  Lover,  1703,  The  Conscious  Lovers, 
1722),  and  of  Addison  (The  Drummer,  1715).  The  creative 
literature  of  the  century  must,  evidently,  be  studied  as  a  back- 
ground to  poetic  theory.  The  numerous  editions  of  older 
authors,  collections  of  early  poetry  and  drama,  histories  of 
types  and  periods  of  art,  biographies  of  authors,  translations 
of  and  commentaries  upon  the  ancients,  as  Tyrwhitt's  and 
Pye's  editions  of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  —  the  effect  of  all  such 
upon  critical  theory  and  practice  must  be  considered. 

This  fourth  period  comprises  the  tyranny  of  conventional 
poetics  and  the  preliminaries  of  the  reaction.  By  Johnson 
and  his  school,  on  the  one  side,  principles  were  conventionalized, 
while  method  was  made  systematic  and  style  improved.  To 
be  sure,  the  manner  was  ponderous  and  the  method  personal, 
dictatorial,  and  mechanical ;  but  criticism  had  learned  to  set 
itself  an  object  and  to  move  toward  it.  The  followers  of  the 
Wartons  had,  on  the  other  side,  attempted  to  deepen  the  study 
of  theory  and  to  widen  the  courses  of  method.  They  had 
revived  the  poetic  tests  of  nature,  passion,  and  imagination, 
and  had  put  into  practice  the  elementary  principles  of  historical 
method,  genetic  and  comparative. 

The  present,  the  Fifth,  Period  in  the  development  of  English 
poetics  opens  with  the  present  century.  So  far  as  theory  is 
concerned,  the  dominant  movement  of  this  period  had  been 
gaining  momentum  ever  since  1739  ;  it  had  reached  its  culmi- 
nation as  a  movement  of  revolt  in  1798  ;  as  a  movement  of  posi- 
tive and  practical  influence  it  still  continues.  Divisions  into 
periods  are  arbitrary.  The  classical  and  the  romantic  move- 


414  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

ments  in  one  form  or  another  are  perennial ;  they  flow  through 
periods.  But,  viewed  synthetically,  the  igth  century  may  be 
called  the  Period  of  Reconstruction.  Its  beginning  is  marked 
by  the  organization  of  criticism  which  attended  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Reviews,  —  in  1802  the  Edinburgh,  and  in  1809 
the  Quarterly,  —  soon  to  be  followed  by  Blackwood  and  the 
London  Magazine.  Hitherto  criticism  had  carried  the  author 
ity  of  the  writer  only ;  and  the  labor  of  criticism  was  gen- 
erally an  avocation,  or,  at  best,  secondary  to  some  regular 
profession.  But  the  judgments  of  the  Edinburgh  and  the 
Quarterly  were  known  to  proceed  from  one  or  other  of  a 
coterie  of  acknowledged  scholars  and  men  of  letters  ;  to  repre- 
sent the  opinions  and  policy  of  the  coterie  and  the  best  ability 
of  the  writer.  Criticism,  accordingly,  was,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  century,  organized  as  a  profession  by  the  Edinburgh, 
under  the  editorship  of  Jeffrey,  with  the  collaboration  of  Sydney 
Smith,  Brougham,  Scott,  Leslie,  etc.  ;  by  the  Quarterly,  under 
the  editorship  of  Gifford,  with  the  collaboration  of  Scott, 
Southey,  Lockhart,  etc. ;  by  Blackwood's  Magazine,  under  Wil- 
son, Lockhart,  Hogg,  and  Maginn ;  and  by  the  London,  under 
Lamb,  Hazlitt,  and  De  Quincey.  (See  Traill's  Social  England, 
and  Saintsbury's  Nineteenth  Century  Literature.) 

The  history  of  criticism  in  the  early  part  of  this  century 
may  be  considered  systematically  as  follows  :  (i)  The  Enun- 
ciation of  the  Romantic  Principle  :  Wordsworth,  Coleridge's 
earlier  writings,  Scott  in  the  Edinburgh,  etc.  (2)  The  Classical 
Reaction  :  the  Reviews  —  Jeffrey,  Gifford,  Lockhart,  Southey, 
Wilson,  etc.  But  here  the  student  should  discriminate  between 
the  impressionism  and  narrow  prejudice  of  Gifford  (the  nadir 
of  personal  criticism)  and  the  reactionary  but  altogether  more 
catholic  and  philosophical  traditionalism  which,  in  spite  of 
occasional  spleen  and  error,  characterizes  Jeffrey.  Blackwood 
follows,  to  some  extent,  the  lead  of  the  older  reviews,  but  Wil- 
son's temper  frequently  prompts  to  liberal  appreciation  ;  while 


£.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  415 

Lockhart  (even  if  he  did  commit  the  diatribe  against  Keats) 
deserves  credit  as  a  master  of  critical  biography,  and  displays 
neither  the  caprice  of  Wilson  nor  the  malignity  and  retrogressive 
bigotry  of  Gifford. 

(3)  The  Establishment  of  Romantic  Criticism.  First,  Bowles, 
whose  criticism  of  Pope's  poetry,  prefixed  to  his  edition  of  that 
poet's  works,  1806,  gave  rise  to  the  controversy  with  Campbell 
and  Byron  (Campbell's  Essay  on  Poetry,  1819;  Byron's  Letter 
to  John  Murray,  and  Observations  upon  Observations,  1821  ; 
Bowles's  Invariable  Principles  of  Poetry,  1819,  and  Letters  to 
Byron  and  Campbell,  1822).  Second,  Coleridge  (Lectures  on 
English  Poets,  1808,  1812;  Biographia  Literaria,  1817).  On 
Coleridge's  relation  to  Wordsworth's  theories,  see  Traill's  Social 
England  ;  for  the  source  of  his  criticism,  German  and  English, 
see  Brandl's  Coleridge  and  Miss  Wylie's  Evolution  of  Criticism. 
Third,  Campbell  (Lectures  on  Poetry,  1810;  Specimens  of  the 
British  Poets,  1819-1848).  Fourth,  Leigh  Hunt,  in  criticism 
a  direct  descendant  of  the  Wartons  and  Spence,  in  temperament, 
of  Goldsmith  ;  he  in  turn  influenced  his  contemporaries  Hazlitt 
and  Lamb,  and  probably  both  Carlyle  and  Macaulay,  the 
leaders  of  criticism  in  the  next  generation  (Critical  Essays, 
1805;  What  is  Poetry?  1844;  Wit  and  Humor,  etc.).  Fifth, 
Charles  Lamb,  unique  in  sympathetic  insight,  a  forerunner 
of  Pater.  Sixth,  William  Hazlitt,  the  ally  of  Coleridge  in  the 
contention  that  poetry  should  be  judged  not  by  some  stand- 
ard of  the  critics,  but  by  the  criterion  of  poetry — poetry  uni- 
versal and  in  the  abstract  (Round  Table,  1817  ;  Characters 
of  Shakespeare's  Plays,  1817 ;  English  Poets,  1818 ;  Eng- 
lish Comic  Writers,  1819  ;  Dramatic  Literature  of  the  Reign 
of  Elizabeth,  1821  ;  Table  Talk,  1821-22).  Seventh,  Shelley, 
whose  Defense  of  Poetry,  1821,  provoked  by  T.  L.  Peacock's 
Four  Ages  of  Poetry,  recalls  the  best  of  Sidney,  Bacon,  Words- 
worth, and  Coleridge,  and  anticipates  Carlyle's  gospel  of  poetic 
significance  and  Pater's  of  rational  aesthetic  delight. 


416  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Minor  writers  during  these  years  were  Sir  Egerton  Brydges 
(Censura  Literaria,  etc.,  1805-1809),  John  Nichols  (Literary 
Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth  Century.  9  vols.  1812-15;  anc* 
Illustrations  of  Literary  History.  8  vols.  1817—58),  Hartley 
Coleridge  (Marginalia,  etc.),  John  Sterling,  Baker,  Reed,  and 
Jones  (Biographia  Dramatica.  3  vols.  1812),  Genest  (Account 
of  the  English  Stage.  10  vols.  1830). 

(4)  Attempts  at  an  Historical  Method.  These  began  with 
Henry  Hallam,  and  were  continued  by  Carlyle,  De  Quincey, 
and  Macaulay.  Of  Carlyle  it  may  be  said  that  his  services  are 
rather  in  the  theory  of  criticism  than  the  practice;  but  both  .in 
theory  and  practice  his  keynote  is  '  historical':  poetry  is  history 
vitalized;  the  poet  is  the  outcome  of  his  own  history  and  the 
history  of  the  nation.  Carlyle  taught  the  significance  of  poetry, 
the  interpretative  function  of  criticism,  and  advocated  a  method 
of  research  at  once  genetic  and  comparative.  His  influence  in 
the  systematization  and  limitation  of  modern  criticism  has  been 
immense,  and  has  by  no  means  begun  to  exhaust  itself.  It 
affects  rather  the  matter  than  the  manner,  and  is  more  a  philoso- 
phy than  an  aesthetic  of  poetry  (see  Miscellanies,  Goethe,  etc., 
Lectures  on  Heroes,  History  of  Literature,  and  §  20  above). 
In  their  recognition  of  national  literary  development  and  in 
their  familiarity  with  German  literature  Carlyle  and  De  Quincey 
were  sympathetic  ;  but  as  regards  the  appreciation  of  German 
literature  De  Quincey  is  more  insular  than  Carlyle,  and  as 
regards  literary  history,  while  Carlyle  would  discover  the  bearing 
of  the  poet's  ethical  significance,  De  Quincey  is  concerned  with 
that  of  his  literary  characteristic.  Macaulay,  who  knew  not 
Germany,  and  with  all  his  biographical  industry  never  learned  the 
comparative  method,  represents  the  "  personal  "  wing  of  the  his- 
torical school.  He  is  judge  and  advocate  combined.  He  derives 
from  Samuel  Johnson,  Gibbon,  Jeffrey,  Hallam,  and  Hazlitt. 

In  the  latter  half  of  this  century  a  movement  is  manifest 
which  has  for  its  purpose  the  Investigation  of  Principles  and 


B.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  417 

the  Establishment  of  a  Scientific  Basis  for  poetic  and  artistic 
appreciation.  The  leaders  in  this  movement  are  John  Stuart 
Mill  (System  of  Logic,  1843,  etc-;  Thoughts  on  Poetry  and  its 
Varieties,  etc.),  Herbert  Spencer  (Social  Statics,  1851;  Psychol- 
ogy, 1855,  etc. ;  Philosophy  of  Style,  1852;  On  Gracefulness, 
1854),  and  G.  H.  Lewes  (Problems  of  Life  and  Mind,  1874—79, 
etc.;  Principles  of  Success  in  Literature). 

By  the  teachings  of  these  men  Morris,  Ruskin,  and  Arnold 
have  been  more  or  less  affected.  But  Morris  and  Ruskin  have 
confined  themselves  principally  to  the  aesthetics  and  economics 
of  the  plastic  arts,  while  the  aesthetics  and  didactics  of  poetry 
are  the  immediate  concern  of  Matthew  Arnold.  For  the  com- 
parative method  of  literary  criticism  Arnold  has  done  what 
Ruskin  is  doing  for  that  of  art-criticism  (see  Collingwood's 
Art-Teaching  of  Ruskin).  A  combination  and  modification  of 
the  qualities  of  Ruskin  and  Arnold  (by  the  omission  of  the 
economics  of  the  first  and  the  didactics  of  the  second)  appear 
in  the  essays  of  Walter  Pater,  who,  with  Symonds,  is  regarded 
as  the  leader  of  the  hedonistic  school.  But  Pater's  chief  char- 
acteristic is  his  desire  to  interpret  and  reproduce  the  author  ; 
Symond's,  to  show  the  historical  relations  of  poetry  and  art. 
For  Ruskin,  Arnold,  Pater,  etc.,  see  §§  2,  5,  8,  14,  20. 

Most  of  the  other  writers  on  poetry  who  should  be  considered 
in  connection  with  the  tendencies  that  have  affected  the  latter 
half  of  the  century  have  been  already  mentioned  in  the  sections 
indicated  above.  The  more  important  may  be  classified  by 
the  student.  They  are  such  as  Spedding  (Bacon,  and  Essays 
and  Reviews)  ;  William  Edmondston  Aytoun,  whose  Firmilian 
(a  verse  satire)  upset  the  spasmodic  school  ;  Sir  Francis  Doyle 
(Lectures  on  Poetry.  Lond.:  1869.  Extremely  good  reading 
—  especially  the  Inaugural,  in  which  certain  so-called  tests, 
definitions,  and  laws  of  poetry  are  deftly  handled ;  but  Doyle 
does  not  accept  the  distinction  between  fancy  and  imagina- 
tion enunciated  in  various  ways  by  Wordsworth,  Coleridge,  and 


418  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Ruskin) ;  Dallas,  Palgrave,  Brimley,  Robert  Buchanan  (David 
Gray  and  other  Essays,  chiefly  on  Poetry.  Lond.:  1868.  See 
pp.  3-60);  Masson  ;  Minto  (Characteristics  of  the  English  Poets 
from  Chaucer  to  Shirley.  Edinb. :  1874);  Browning  (the  lumi- 
nous Essay  on  Poetry,  referred  to  in  §  20)  ;  Courthope,  Austin, 
Stopford  Brooke  (Primer  ;  History  of  Early  English  Literature  ; 
Theology  in  the  English  Poets,  N.  Y. :  1875  ;  anc^  his  Tenny- 
son); Bagehot;  Gurney;  Myers;  Dowden  (especially  his  con- 
structive and  poetic  Shakespearian  criticism  ;  his  Shelley ;  and 
his  Transcendentalism  in  Poetry,  etc.,  in  his  Studies  in  Litera- 
ture, 1789-1877,  Lond.:  1887);  Wm.  Knight  (Studies  in  Phi- 
losophy and  Literature);  Leslie  Stephen  (numerous  articles  in 
the  Dictionary  of  National  Biography  and  elsewhere);  John 
Morley;  Saintsbury  (especially  in  his  History  of  Nineteenth 
Century  Literature,  and  his  contributions  to  Train's  Social 
England);  Swinburne;  Gosse  (in  addition  to  works  already  cited, 
his  recent  History  of  Modern  English  Literature,  with  its  admi- 
rable Epilogue,  in  which  he  calls  for  the  abandonment  of  'indi- 
vidualistic '  criticism,  and  the  adoption  of  methods  borrowed 
from  the  field  of  science.  He  would  apply  but  two  criteria  to 
the  poem  :  (i)  Does  the  poet  perform  with  distinguished  skill 
what  he  sets  out  to  perform  ?  (2)  What  is  his  place  in  literary 
evolution,  and  his  relation  to  those  of  his  own  kith  and  kin  ? 
This  is  the  best  word  that  has  been  said  for  many  years  in  regard 
to  criticism);  Robert  Bridges  (who,  in  addition  to  verses  which 
have  placed  him  among  our  foremost  living  poets,  has  produced 
a  Prosody  of  Milton,  and  an  interpretative  Essay  on  Keats, 
which  entitle  him  to  be  regarded  as  one  of  our  keenest  and 
most  scholarly  critics) ;  Patmore  (Principles  in  Art,  etc.  Lond.: 
1890.  Sentimental  Essays);  Roden  Noel;  Cotterill;  W.  M.  Dixon 
(Poetry  and  its  Relation  to  Life,  in  his  treatise  From  Blake  to 
Browning.  Lond.:  1894.  Attempts  to  restore  the  discussion 
to  the  philosophical  basis  established  by  Plato  and  Aristotle); 
Worsfold  (Principles  of  Criticism,  Lond. :  1897;  a  fair  statement 


£.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  419 

of  the  aesthetics  of  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  Spencer,  with  an  inter- 
esting but  disproportioned  and  unhistorical  history  of  poetic 
theory  as  traced  through  Bacon,  Addison,  Lessing,  Cousin,  and 
Arnold)  ;  J.  M.  Robertson  (Essays,  and  New  Essays,  toward 
a  Critical  Method);  Alfred  Miles  (and  his  coadjutors  in  the 
unique  and  excellent  volumes  of  the  Poets  and  Poetry  of  the 
Century). 

(//)  Present  Condition  of  English  Criticism.  —  Few  English 
critics,  if  any,  have  fulfilled  the  requirements  of  both  theory  and 
method.  Many  excel  in  some  particular  sphere  of  criticism, 
but  even  the  broadest  is  one-sided.  By  some  the  comparative 
method  has  been  impartially  handled,  by  some  the  light  of  art- 
criticism  has  been  brought  to  bear,  by  some  the  philosophical 
elements  of  poetry  have  been  studied,  by  some  the  school  and 
age  and  movement  have  been  considered  ;  with  still  others  the 
individuality  of  the  poet  is  the  problem  of  prime  importance,  or 
his  conformity  to  traditional  consensus,  or  his  relation  to  national 
history.  Some  analyze  and  pigeon-hole  ;  some  praise,  some 
condemn,  some  appreciate;  some  neither  pass  judgment  nor 
appreciate,  — they  register,  record,  or  interpret.  Some  judge  with 
regard  to  truth,  some  with  regard  to  conduct,  some  with  regard 
to  emotion.  For  one,  poetry  is  the  breath  of  science,  for  an- 
other the  criticism  of  life,  for  another  an  art  for  its  own  sake. 
There  is  neither  system  nor  consensus.  Criticism  is  still  largely 
personal,  capricious,  traditional,  sometimes  mechanical,  some- 
times ignorant,  and  too  frequently  unregulated  by  control  of 
any  kind.  But  the  signs  of  the  times  indicate  a  growth  of 
inquiry  into  the  principles  of  judgment  and  of  method,  and  a 
discrimination  of  the  one  kind  from  the  other  :  an  inclination 
to  decide  the  canons  of  theory  with  reference  to  philosophical, 
comparative,  scientific,  and  aesthetic  considerations,  not  apart 
but  in  organic  relation, —  regarded  as  genetic,  not  as  static, — 
and  to  develop  canons  of  method  by  adapting  methods  of 
scientific  research  to  the  old  problems  and  the  new  mate- 


420  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

rials.     The  period  of  reconstruction  is,  however,  still   in  its 
infancy. 

In  estimating  the  present  condition  of  English  criticism,  it 
may  perhaps  be  of  service  to  consider  what  has  been  elsewhere 
said  by  the  author  of  this  chapter  on  the  condition  of  literary 
science  in  our  universities  (The  Dial,  Chicago,  July  24,  1894). 
Adapted  to  our  present  purpose,  those  remarks  would  have  been 
as  follows  :  The  present  anarchy,  sometimes  tyranny  of  critical 
practice  is  due  generally  to  a  deficient  analysis  of  theory  and 
method,  and  an  incomprehensive  view  of  the  function  of  criti- 
cism and  the  extent  of  the  field.  Hence  the  uncertainty  of  aim 
with  which  criticism  is  frequently  reproached.  This  lack  of 
system  is,  however,  indicative  only  of  the  fact  that  literary 
science  is  in  a  transitional  stage  ;  no  longer  static,  nor  yet 
organic,  but  genetic.  The  criticism  of  literature  in  the  senti- 
mental, the  formally  stylistic,  or  the  secondhand-historical 
fashion  is  out  of  date.  Scholars  in  philology  have  set  the  new 
pace  by  making  of  their  branch  a  genetic  study  ;  a  study  of 
sources,  causes,  relations,  movements,  and  effects.  Students 
of  literature  and  criticism  are  now,  as  rapidly  as  may  be,  adapt- 
ing progressive  methods,  whether  historical  or  aesthetic,  to 
their  lines  of  research.  But  each  is  naturally  liable  to  urge  the 
method  that  he  favors,  or  thinks  that  he  has  invented.  One, 
therefore,  advocates  ethical  and  religious  exegesis,  another  aes- 
thetic interpretation,  another  comparative  criticism,  another 
the  placing  of  the  masterpiece  in  the  evolution  of  the  type. 
This  is  to  be  expected  ;  and  our  genetic  and  frequently  sporadic 
stage  of  literary  science  cannot  fulfil  its  promise  until,  by  elim- 
ination, attrition,  and  adjustment  of  results,  the  way  has  been 
prepared  for  something  organic.  Hospitality  to  ideas  and  con- 
servative liberality  of  method  will  hasten  the  advent  of  system- 
atic investigation.  Even  now  there  are  those  who  study  the 
masterpiece,  not  only  in  dynamic  relation  to  author  and  type, 
but  also  in  organic  relation  to  the  social  and  artistic  movements 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL  STUDY  OF  POETICS.  421 

of  which  author  and  type  are  integral  factors.  The  sum  of  the 
methods  of  any  literary  inquiry  should  be  exhaustive,  so  far  as 
circumstances  permit.  The  exigencies  of  leisure,  space,  and 
purpose  are,  however,  such  that  due  regard  in  turn  for  historical 
criticism  (linguistic,  textual ;  relative  to  the  history  of  the  move- 
ment, national,  social,  literary,  and  artistic),  technical  criticism 
(distinctive  of  the  type  ;  its  evolution,  characteristic,  construc- 
tion, and  function),  interpretative  criticism  (the  ethical  and 
intellectual  conception,  the  psychological  condition),  and  aes- 
thetic criticism  (in  its  narrow  acceptation  referring  to  the 
effect  of  the  masterpiece  upon  imagination  and  emotion,  but 
in  its  broader  including  with  this  all  previous  kinds  of  criticism), 
—  due  regard  for  each  kind  can  rarely  be  observed  in  the  study 
of  any  one  specimen  of  literature.  But  it  should  be  the  aim  of 
the  critic,  availing  himself  of  these  instruments  of  research,  to 
present  an  impartial  interpretation,  reproduction,  and  estimate 
of  the  author  to  the  reading  public.  With  these  considerations 
in  mind,  it  is  evident  that  the  attempt  to  limit  the  practice  or 
the  theory  of  criticism  to  one  method  or  one  school  would  end 
in  formalism  ;  would  remand  literary  science  to  its  static  stage. 
Such  limitation,  however,  is,  fortunately,  impossible.  For  we 
now  understand  that  criticism  cannot  be  restricted  to  form 
alone,  or  thought  alone,  or  to  one  kind  of  form  or  one  kind 
of  thought.  It  is  of  both,  and  of  all  kinds  of  each.  Form 
and  thought  are  as  inseparable  in  literature  as  in  life ;  the 
expression  is  inherent  in  the  idea  ;  and  to  understand  literary 
expression  one  must  be  capable  of  appreciating  all  sides  of 
the  literary  idea.  Social,  metaphysical,  and  ethical  themes  are 
within  the  function  of  the  bellelettrist  as  soon  as,  emotional- 
ized and  clad  in  aesthetic  form,  they  enter  the  field  of  letters. 
Nay,  further,  the  methods  of  science,  historical,  chemical,  geo- 
logical, anthropological,  or  biological,  are  within  his  function 
as  soon  as  their  adaptation  may  assist  him  to  weigh- aesthetic 
values  or  to  trace  the  development  of  literary  organisms.  It  is. 


422  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

consequently  unwise  to  contemn  efforts  at  scientific  method, 
even  though  in  the  hands  of  enthusiasts  they  may  appear  to 
countervail  aesthetic  interpretation  and  discipline.  In  periods 
of  transition,  monomaniacs  are  forces.  It  is  for  those  of  far 
gaze  and  patient  temper  to  compute  results  and  perform  the 
synthesis. 

Among  later  critics  there  has  been  evident  a  right  tendency 
in  theoretic  criticism  to  regard  poetry  both  as  absolute  and 
relative  ;  to  test  the  absolute  aesthetic  worth  by  reference  to 
the  laws  of  nature  and  thought,  the  poet's  own  conception  of 
these  and  of  his  poetic  function  in  interpreting  them,  —  the 
poet's  aim  ;  to  test  the  relative  worth  of  a  poem  by  reference 
not  to  the  standard  of  some  preferred,  so-called  classical,  or 
romantic  school,  but  with  reference  to  the  particular  movement 
of  which  it  was  part,  and  to  the  social,  the  inherited,  the  artistic, 
and  the  individual  conditions  of  the  age  that  have  contributed 
to  that  movement  and  have  affected  the  individual.  And  in 
method  the  tendency  has  fortunately  been,  with  the  best  writers, 
more  impartial,  comparative,  genetic,  psychological,  sometimes 
with  a  view  to  recording,  sometimes  to  interpreting,  sometimes 
to  teaching.  As  a  result,  something  like  artistic  criticism  has 
occasionally  been  produced.  Credit  in  this  regard  is  especially 
due  to  Ruskin,  Arnold,  Pater,  Symonds,  Gurney,  Stephen, 
Gosse,  and  Dowden.  In  France  such  men  as  Sainte-Beuve 
and  his  successors  are  worthy  of  mention  ;  in  Germany,  the 
followers  of  Lessing  and  the  recent  writers  of  the  great  his- 
tories of  literature ;  and  in  Denmark,  Brandes,  with  his  Haupt- 
stromungen  and  the  admirable  Study  of  Shakespeare  (2  vols. 
Lond.:  1897). 

3.  IN  GERMANY.  —  First  Period.  —  If  we  turn  to  the  history 
of  poetics  in  Germany,  we  shall  find  between  the  births  of 
Gerhard  Voss,  1577,  and  of  Baumgarten,  1714,  no  writers 
worthy  of  more  than  passing  mention.  The  Prosodia  Germania 
(Frankf. :  1634)  of  Martin  Opitz  is  representative  of  this  interval 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  423 

—  purely  formalistic.  But  a  Second  Period  opened  when,  in 
1721,  by  his  Diskurse  der  Mahler,  Johann  Jakob  Bodmer,  of 
Zurich,  pointed  out  the  vanity  of  the  existing  French  school 
of  German  poets  and  critics,  and  attacked  the  accepted  authori- 
ties on  German  Art.  The  tenets  of  the  Swiss  writer  were 
adopted  by  J.  J.  Breitinger  and  other  gifted  young  scholars  in 
Germany.  It  was  not  till  1740,  when  Bodmer's  Vom  Wun- 
derbaren  in  der  Poesie  (Zurich)  and  Breitinger's  Kritische 
Dichtkunst  (2  vols.  Zurich)  appeared,  that  the  Swiss  school 
encountered  any  organized  opposition.  In  Bodmer's  anxiety 
to  revive  the  worship  of  classic  models  and  of  the  older  German 
masters,  and  to  create  an  appreciation  of  English  poetry,  he 
had  found  it  necessary  to  censure  the  teaching  of  Gottsched 
and  the  Saxon  school.  Critics  took  sides.  Gottsched's  heavy 
artillery  was  brought  to  bear  in  1750,  but  without  much  effect, 
for  his  Versuch  einer  Kritischen  Dichtkunst  was  as  old-fashioned 
and  ponderous  as  the  Prosodia  of  Opitz.  See  for  full  bibliog- 
raphy, and  an  excellent  history  of  poetics  in  the  i8th  century,  O. 
Neboliczka's  Schaferdichtung  und  Poetik  im  18.  Jahrh.  (Vier- 
teljahrsch.  f.  Litteraturgesch.  2  :  22  :  i.  Die  deutsche  Schafer- 
dichtung von  Gottsched  bis  auf  die  Bremer  Beitrage ;  2.  J.  A. 
Schlegel's  Satire  :  Vom  Natiirlichen  in  Schaferdichten  ;  3.  Der 
eigentliche  Gegenstand  der  Schaferpoesie ;  4.  Der  Fortgang 
der  dichterischen  Production  bis  1756  ;  5.  Gessner  u.  der 
Umschwung  der  Theorie.  Beilage  :  J.  A.  Schlegel  u.  Liscow). 
On  Bodmer,  Gottsched,  etc.,  see  also  references  under  their 
names  in  §  20  above. 

But  while  on  either  side  the  adherents  of  Bodmer  and  Gott- 
sched were  exalting  for  imitation  antagonistic  models  of  poetic 
perfection,  it  appeared  to  another  critic  that  both  parties  mis- 
understood the  nature  of  the  subject.  This  was  Baumgarten, 
who,  by  his  De  Nonnullis  ad  Poema  pertinentibus  (1735)  and 
his  Aesthetica  (2  Bde.,  1750-58),  exhibited  the  relation  of  poet- 
ics to  aesthetics  and  established  the  position  of  the  latter  as 


424  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

an  independent  science.  Baumgarten  was  followed  by  Sulzer 
and  Eberhard  (see  F.  Braitmaier,  Gesch.  d.  poetisch.  Theorie 
u.  Kritik  von  d.  Diskursen  d.  Mahler  bis  auf  Lessing.  Frauen- 
feld:  1888-89),  and  by  Gellert,  whose  article,  Wie  weit  sich 
der  Nutzen  der  Regeln  in  d.  Beredsamkeit  und  Poesie  erstrecke, 
thrashes  the  ancient  straw  with  fine  poetic  vigor  (Sa'mmtliche 
Schriften.  10  vols.  in  5.  Bern:  1774-75  ;  Bd.  VII,  pp.  117- 
154).  These  were,  in  turn,  followed  by  the  critics  of  the 
Third,  the  Classical  Period :  Lessing,  Schiller,  Goethe,  Herder, 
and  Richter.  The  critical  tenets  of  these  writers  were  to 
no  slight  extent  influenced  by  the  attitude  toward  aesthetics 
adopted  by  Kant  and  Fichte.  For  references  to  the  poetics  of 
Lessing  (especially  the  Laocoon  and  the  Hamburgische  Drama- 
turgic), Schiller,  Goethe,  Herder,  and  Richter,  see  §  8,  and  for 
a  review  of  Herder,  Th.  Wagener's  Herder's  Forschungen  iiber 
Sprache  und  Poesie  (Progr.  der  Realschule  I.  O.  zu  Potsdam  : 
1875).  J.  J.  Engel's  Anfangsgriinde  einer  Theorie  der  Dich- 
tungsarten  aus  deutschen  Mustern  entwickelt,  which  appeared 
in  1783,  could  not  have  exercised  any  particular  influence  upon 
the  course  of  poetics,  for  although  its  conception  was  sound,  no 
induction  worthy  of  the  effort  could  be  made  from  German 
literature  before  the  greatest  works  of  Goethe  and  Schiller  were 
produced. 

The  movement  which  succeeded  the  classical  owed  its  origin 
to  Solger  (Vorlesungen  iiber  Aesthetik,  1829),  who  took  as  his 
theme  Fichte's  principle  of  Artistic  Irony  :  "  The  mood  of  the 
artist,  that  impels  him  to  represent  things  eternal  in  terms  of 
the  phenomenal  and  evanescent."  Construing  this  principle 
of  Irony  as  dependent  upon  the  caprice  of  the  artist,  A.  W. 
von  Schlegel  [Kritische  Schriften.  2  vols.  Berl.  :  1828.  Es- 
pecially Lectures  on  Dramatic  Literature  (Bohn)  and  Briefe 
iiber  Poesie,  Silbenmass  und  Sprache,  1795]  and  F.  von  Schle- 
gel (Aesthetic  and  Miscellaneous  Works.  Trans,  by  Millington. 
Lond.  :  1860),  Tieck,  and  others  established  in  Germany  the 


B.~]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  425 

Romantic  School  of  Poetics.  This  dominates  the  fourth  Period. 
The  aesthetic  teachings  of  the  Romantiker  inspired  Germany 
with  a  taste  for  Spanish  and  English  drama  as  opposed  to  the 
formal  and  so-called  classical  productions  of  France  and  Italy. 
Hence  the  admirable  Shakespearian  criticism  of  the  earlier 
part  of  the  century.  (See  Heine's  Die  romantische  Schule  : 
a  brilliant  essay  on  the  romantic  revival  and  its  character- 
istics.) 

The  one-sidedness,  however,  of  the  romantic  school  became 
evident  under  the  flood  of  light  poured  upon  aesthetics  by 
Hegel.  And  round  Hegel's  Die  Poesie  most  subsequent 
German  writers  on  poetry,  accordant  or  divergent,  revolve. 
This  is  true  even  of  such  anti-Hegelians  as  Schopenhauer 
(chapters  on  object  of  art,  aesthetics  of  poetry,  and  of  music), 
who  either  borrow  their  ideas  from  Hegel  or  owe  their  virility 
to  the  intensity  of  their  antagonism.  With  Hegel's  poetics  as 
presenting  the  view-point  of  absolute  idealism  should  be  read 
F.  T.  Vischer's  chapters  on  poetry  in  his  Aesthetik,  and  C.  H. 
Weisse's  statement  of  theory  in  his  System  d.  Aesthetik  als 
Wissenschaft  von  d.  Idee  d.  Schonheit  (Leipz.:  1830).  This, 
the  fifth  Period  of  German  poetics,  may  be  called  the  historic- 
aesthetic  ;  it  has  its  philological  side,  as  well  as  its  philosophical, 
the  former  represented  by  Boeckh,  Paul,  Elze,  etc.,  the  latter  by 
Brandl,  Vischer,  etc.  See  §  21,  A  5.  Lotze  writes  on  poetry 
as  well  as  on  philosophy  ;  but,  unfortunately,  his  chapter  on 
poetry  in  the  Geschichte  d.  Aesthetik  in  Deutschland  is  inade- 
quate even  for  an  historical  sketch.  The  sections  on  poetry 
in  his  Outlines  of  Aesthetics  are  likewise  inconclusive,  though 
suggestive.  Much  more  valuable  from  the  historical  point  of 
view  is  J.  J.  Wagner's  Dichterschule  (3.  Aufl.  Ulm :  1850). 
The  writings  of  Moritz  Carriere  are  always  refreshing  and 
enthusiastic  in  matter  as  in  style.  Not  only  his  earlier  volume, 
Das  Wesen  u.  d.  Formen  d.  Poesie  (Leipz.  :  1854),  but  Die 
Kunst  im  Zusammenhang  d.  Culturentwickelung,  and  Die  Acs- 


426  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

thetik  are  valuable  for  the  liberal  literary  material  with  which 
the  author's  theories,  generally  Hegelian,  are  illustrated. 

During  this  period  other  German  writers  of  more  or  less  impor- 
tance are  Wackernagel,  Wilh.  Scherer,  Rosenkranz,  Sutermeis- 
ter,  Kleinpaul,  Gottschall,  Meyer,  and  Cohen.  Wackernagel's 
Poetik,  Rhetorik,  u.  Stilistik  (Halle  :  1873)  indicates  the  com- 
mon basis  of  the  three  departments  mentioned  in  the  title. 
The  treatment  of  poetry  is  historico-philosophical,  and  happily 
avoids  the  futility  of  rule-making.  It  is  an  honest  effort  toward 
the  discovery  of  fundamental  laws.  The  chapter,  pp.  16-35, 
Das  Wesen  d.  Poesie  im  Ganzen  u.  Allgemeinen  is  a  cogent 
argument  against  the  imitation  theory.  The  lectures  on  poet- 
ics (Poetik.  Hrsg.  von  R.  M.  Meyer.  Berl. :  1888)  by  Wilh. 
Scherer,  delivered  shortly  before  his  death,  though  rambling 
and  fragmentary,  may  be  called  his  best  piece  of  work.  In  his 
discussion  of  the  material  of  poetry,  pp.  205-226,  it  will  be 
noticed  that  he  has  adopted  the  classification  into  the  worlds 
physical,  moral,  and  imaginative  used  by  Goethe  and  Schiller 
in  their  correspondence.  Chapter  I,  Das  Ziel,  follows  the  lines 
laid  down  by  Hegel.  Pp.  118-147,  Ueber  den  Werth  d.  Poesie, 
are  a  lucid,  if  not  technically  philosophical,  exposition  of  the 
subject.  A  decidedly  less  important  volume  is  Otto  Suter- 
meister's  Leitfaden  d.  Poetik  (Zurich :  1874) ;  but,  in  spite 
of  its  pedagogical  character,  it  displays  within  the  compass 
of  a  hundred  pages  a  fruitful  application  of  the  theories  of 
Carriere  and  Vischer.  Perhaps  the  most  spirited  of  popular 
German  monographs  on  poetry  is  R.  von  Gottschall's  Poetik  : 
Die  Dichtkunst  u.  ihre  Technik  (5.  Aufl.  Breslau  :  1882). 
Von  Gottschall  is  a  special  pleader  ;  he  writes  poetics  from  a 
'  modern  point  of  view,'  and  would  have  poetry,  in  Germany  at 
least,  written  in  the  same  spirit :  "  It  shall  be  the  utterance  of 
the  Zeitgeist."  But,  in  spite  of  von  Gottschall's  prepossessions, 
his  work  is  forcibly  and  philosophically  performed  ;  and,  per- 
haps because  of  his  nationalism,  it  has  had  a  remarkable  run. 


B.-]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  427 

The  sketch  of  the  history  of  poetics,  pp.  1-16,  is  valuable, 
especially  from  the  point  of  view  of  aesthetics  in  Germany. 
Pp.  19-134,  Die  Poesie  im  System  d.  Kiinste,  and  Der  Geist  d. 
Dichtkunst,  are  an  excellent  resumk  of  much  of  the  thought 
of  Hegel,  Rosen kranz,  and  Carriere.  The  Poesie  u.  ihre 
Geschichte  of  K.  Rosenkranz  (Konigsb.  :  1855)  is  compre- 
hensive in  method  and  subject-matter.  It  has  the  merit  of 
proceeding  on  a  systematic  induction  from  national  literatures. 
The  groups  are  sub-classified  under  the  following  heads  : 
(i)  the  Ethnic  Peoples  and  the  Ideal  of  Beauty ;  (2)  the 
Theistic  Peoples  and  the  Ideal  of  Wisdom;  (3)  the  Christian 
Peoples  and  the  Ideal  of  Freedom,  —  a  division  suggestive, 
indeed,  but  easily  liable  to  forced  interpretation,  since  it  as- 
sumes that  the  evolution  of  poetry  has  proceeded  upon  lines 
determined  for  the  evolution  of  religion.  Pp.  3-31,  Einlei- 
tung,  will  especially  interest  the  student  of  the  comparative 
method. 

Other  historical  studies  of  poetry  are  K.  T.  Schroer's  Die 
Deutsche  Dichtungdes  14.  Jahrhunderts  (Leipz.  :  1875),  and  K. 
Goedeke's  Deutsche  Dichtung  im  Mittelalter  (Dresden  :  1871). 
Lange's  Deutsche  Poetik,  Formenlehre  d.  deutschen  Dicht- 
kunst, neu  bearb.  von  R.  Jonas,  is  a  useful  outline  of  the  subject. 
Meyer's  little  volume  (Leitfaden  d.  deutsch.  Poetik.  Leipz.  : 
1869)  is  noteworthy  merely  as  a  compendious  German  school- 
book.  It  has  no  critical  value.  The  same  may  be  said  of  F. 
Bachmann's  Schusters  Lehrbuch  der  Poetik  (3.  Aufl.  Halle  : 
1890),  of  J.  Methner's  Poesie  und  Prosa  (Halle,  A.  S. :  1889),  and 
of  R.  von  Zeynek's  Lehrbuch  d.  deutschen  Stilistik  und  Poetik 
(6.  Aufl.  Graz  :  1891).  In  connection  with  the  theories  of 
Bacon,  Buckle,  Vischer,  and  Schelling,  might  be  read  H.  Cohen's 
clever  plea  for  a  psychological  study  of  the  conditions  of  poetry, 
Die  Dichterische  Phantasie  u.  d.  Mechanismus  des  Bewusst- 
seins  (Berl.:  1869.  Abdr.  aus  d.  Zeitschrift  f.  Volkerpsych^). 
Kleinpaul's  Poetik  will  be  referred  to  under  §  23.  It  is  an 


428  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

admirable  text-book,  and  may  well  be  studied  in  connection 
with  the  Populare  Vortrage  iiber  Dichter  und  Dichtkunst  of 
Ernst  Grad  (Triest  :  1870).  In  Deutsche  Poetik,  Umriss  d. 
Lehre  vom  Wesen  u.  von  d.  Formen  d.  Dichtkunst,  mit  einer 
Einfuhrung  in  das  Gebiet  d.  Kunstlehre  (Dresden-Striesen  : 
1891),  P.  Heinze  and  R.  Goette  make  pretense  to  scientific 
treatment,  but  are  not  very  successful.  See  on  recent  German 
treatises  E.  Wolff's  article  in  Archiv  f.  Gesch,  d.  Philos.  4  :  251 
Ueber  Neuere  Beitrage  z.  Gesch.  d.  Poetik.  A  novel  but  by 
no  means  convincing  recent  German  investigation  into  the 
nature  of  Poetry  is  Jacobowski's  Die  Anfange  der  Poesie 
(Dresden  :  1891),  which  attempts  a  physiological  as  well  as 
psychical  explanation  of  its  origin.  See  for  notice  §  17.  For 
Werner  and  other  authorities  on  the  lyric,  and  for  criticism  of 
other  special  types,  see  the  second  volume  of  this  book. 

In  general  on  the  history  of  German  criticism,  see  the  numer- 
ous references  in  §§  2,  5,  8,  21  A,  etc.,  above ;  and  on  the 
movements  of  nineteenth  century  poetics,  see  Brandes's  Haupt- 
stromungen. 

4.  IN  FRANCE.  —  In  the  following  brief  outline  the  subject 
is  divided  into  periods  according  to  development  in  theory 
(principles  of  judgment).  Development  in  method  is  inciden- 
tally noticed,  and  the  history  of  dramatic  criticism  is  held  apart 
from  that  of  poetics  in  general.  It  will,  however,  be  under- 
stood that  details  of  poetic  and  dramatic  theory  —  such  as  the 
principle  and  history  of  the  unities,  the  function  of  the  drama, 
the  discussion  of  literary  movements  —  are  here  as  elsewhere 
reserved  for  the  chapters  devoted  to  these  subjects. 

The  First  Period  may  be  called  the  Primitive ;  it  extends 
from  the  origins  of  verse-elaboration  to  the  renaissance,  from 
Thibaut  de  Champagne  to  Du  Bellay.  The  first  writer  of 
importance  in  French  poetics  was  Eustache  Deschamps  (1328- 
1415),  who,  about  1400,  wrote  an  Art  poe'tique,  "a  treatise,"  as 
Saintsbury  says,  "  rendered  at  once  necessary  and  popular  by 


B.~]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  429 

the  fashion  of  artificial  rhyming."  The  characteristic  of  poet- 
ics in  the  hands  of  Deschamps  and  de  Croy  is  formality. 
It  deals  with  the  artificial  forms  of  verse,  —  rondeau,  ballade, 
virelai,  etc., —  which  had  supplanted  the  earlier  romances,  pas- 
tourelles,  chansons  d'amour  and  fabliaux  of  the  trouveres  and 
troubadours.  The  tendency  is,  therefore,  didactic.  Henri  de 
Croy's  L'Art  et  science  de  rhetorique  pour  faire  rimes  et  bal- 
lades was  published  in  1493,  and  is  of  the  same  rhetorical  and 
artificial  character  as  Deschamps's  treatise.1 

During  this  period,  the  drama  evolved  no  theories  of  impor- 
tance. The  art  was  still  confined  to  miracle-plays,  mysteries, 
and  farce. 

In  the  Second  Period  we  pass  to  the  literary  '  humanism  '  of 
Du  Bellay  and  the  Pleiade.  This  is  the  period  of  the  Renais- 
sance. It  extends  in  poetry  from  Villon  and  Marot  to  Regnier. 
In  poetics  it  opens  with  the  Defense  et  illustration  de  la  langue 
franchise  of  Joachim  du  Bellay,  1549,  —  which  is  the  announce- 
ment of  intended  reforms.  Beside  Du  Bellay,  this  school,  the 
Ple'iade,  counted  among  its  members  Ronsard,  Daurat,  Bai'f. 
As  opposed  to  the  rhetorical  and  formal  characteristic  of  the 
previous  period,  the  purpose  of  the  school  is  to  reform  and 
enrich  the  language,  the  prosody,  and  the  inspiration  of  poetry, 
by  assimilation  of  such  elements  as  were  possible  from  the 
classics  —  especially  from  the  Greek.  Du  Bellay  and  Ronsard 
(Art  poetique,  and  Preface  to  the  Franciade)  advocate  and 
illustrate  in  practice  the  substitution  of  Latin  and  Greek  metres 
for  popular  artificial  forms  of  verse,  and  the  introduction  of  a 
literary  diction  largely  composed  of  classical  importations  and 
technical  expressions,  —  the  improvement,  in  short,  of  the  French 
tongue  for  the  purpose  of  literary  expression.  But  while,  as 

1  An  attempt  has  been  made  by  Ernest  Langlois  in  his  De  artibus  rhetoricae 
rhythmicae  (Paris:  1890),  pp.  51-61,  to  show  that  de  Croy  was  a  plagiarist,  having 
claimed  for  himself  a  book  written  by  Molinet.  See  also  A.  Sarradin,  Eustache 
Deschamps  (Paris :  1879). 


430  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

children  of  the  Renaissance,  these  critics  retained,  with  all  their 
scholastic  acquisition,  the  spirit  of  mediaeval  romance,  they  did 
not  see  deep  into  the  meaning  of  things.  Their  inspiration  is 
not  from  nature  itself,  but  from  nature  hellenized,  —  by  the 
instrumentality  of  imperfect  antiquarian  scholarship,  —  it  is  an 
imitation  of  a  conception  that  never  existed.  The  attempt  at 
the  introduction  of  classical  metres  is  interesting  to  the  student 
of  English  poetics,  for  it  anticipated  by  some  forty  years  the 
efforts  of  Harvey  and  the  Areopagus.  Other  writers  of  this 
period  are  Scaliger,  whose  Poetics,  in  Latin,  appeared  in  1561 
(for  notice,  see  §  21,  B  i),  and  Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye  (Art 
poetique  frangaise,  1604),  the  former  of  whom  was  the  greatest 
critic  of  his  age,  the  latter  a  mere  rhetorician. 

On  the  history  of  French  poetics  in  the  i6th  century,  see 
Th.  Riicktaschl  :  Einige  Arts  poetiques  aus  der  Zeit  Ronsards 
und  Malherbes  (Leipz.  :  1889);  Georges  Pellissier,  De  sexti 
decimi  saeculi  in  Francia  artibus  poeticis  (Paris  :  1883)  ; 
Sainte-Beuve,  Tableau  historique  et  critique  de  la  poesie 
frangaise  au  XVIe  Siecle ;  and  E.  Egger,  L'Hellenisme  en 
France  (Paris  :  1869). 

The  Recueil  de  1'origine  de  la  langue  et  poesie  frangoise, 
ryme  et  romans,  plus  les  nommes  et  sommaires  des  ceuvres  de 
CXXVII  poetes  frangoises  vivans  avant  1'an  MCCC.  by  Claude 
Fauchet,  is  one  of  the  earliest,  if  not  the  earliest  of  attempts  in 
France  to  indicate  the  growth  of  the  literature.  It  appeared  in 
1581.  A  much  less  conventional  and  less  classical  conception 
of  poetry  was  presented  by  fitienne  Pasquier  in  his  treatise  on 
the  Ple'iade,  "  De  le  grande  flotte  de  poetes  que  produisit  le 
regne  du  roi  Henri  Deuxieme,"  which  forms  part  of  his 
Recherches  de  la  France.  Pasquier  lived  from  1529  to  1615. 
He  wrote  also  on  the  earlier  history  of  French  poetry  —  the 
Provengal.  Certain  philologists  and  rhetoricians,  whose  influ- 
ence was  in  general  thrown  against  the  Latinizing  tendency 
of  the  time,  are  mentioned  by  Saintsbury  (Hist.  French  Lit., 


Z?.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  431 

p.  237).  The  linguistic  treatises  of  Henri  Estienne,  on  the  rela- 
tion of  French  and  Greek,  on  the  excellence  of  French,  and  on 
the  Italianized  French,  indicate  the  reaction  against  the  Ron- 
sardizing  of  the  tongue.  A  similar  protest  was  uttered  by 
Geoffrey  Tory,  also  of  the  i6th  century  ;  and  studies  in  prosody 
were  conducted  by  Pelletier  and  Fontaine,  grammarians. 
Pierre  Fabri,  whose  Le  grand  et  vrai  art  de  pleine  rhetorique 
has  recently  been  reedited  by  A.  Heron  (Paris  :  1889),  must 
be  added  to  this  list  of  scholars. 

In  the  drama,  meanwhile,  the  form  is  scholastic,  classical : 
and  the  manner  is  by  rhetorical  declamations ;  but,  even  so, 
there  is  evidence  that  the  spirit  of  mediaevalism  still  lingers. 
With  Scaliger  appears  the  principle  of  the  so-called  classical 
unities  of  time,  place,  and  action. 

The  Third  Period  is  the  Classical.  It  receives  its  impress 
from  Malherbe,  who  led  the  reaction  against  the  uncritical 
innovations  of  the  Pleiade.  But  in  eliminating  what  was 
excessive  he  managed  to  eliminate  also  the  genuine  romantic 
inspiration  that  was  the  true  life  of  their  poetry.  He  ejects 
the  larger  number  of  their  classical  importations  of  diction  and 
prosody  ;  he  ejects  as  well  the  Gascon,  Provencal,  and  Italian 
forms  in  style.  He  devotes  himself  to  the  elaboration  of  the 
alexandrine  among  metres,  and  of  the  lyric  among  species. 
The  impersonal,  the  allegorical,  the  declamatory,  and  the  ele- 
gant take  the  place  of  the  inspiration  and  feeling  that  had 
colored  the  verses  of  Ronsard  and  the  earlier  poets  of  the 
Renaissance.  This  may  be  called  the  first  division  of  the 
Classical  Period.  The  poetics  is  mainly  concerned  with  forms 
of  the  lyric  —  especially  the  ode. 

(i)  To  this  earlier  part  of  the  Classical  Period  belongs  the 
Foundation  of  the  Academy,  an  event  by  which  was  thwarted 
whatever  tendency  there  had  been  to  revive  the  older  freedom 
of  poetry  and  drama.  Such  a  tendency  was  manifested  in 
Hardy's  pastoral  plays,  in  Daniel  d'Ancheres's  drama,  Tyr  et 


432  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Sidon,  and  in  Francois  Ogier's  preface  to  the  second  edition  of 
the  play,  1628.  But  the  counter-movement  toward  restraint 
of  passion  and  imagination,  and  in  favor  of  obedience  to  the 
classical  unities,  had  asserted  its  strength  in  the  Sophonisbe  of 
Mairet,  and  in  the  same  author's  preface  to  Sylvan  ire,  1631. 
In  1634  this  movement  secured  the  active  cooperation  of 
Richelieu;  in  that  year  the  Academic  Franchise  held  its  first 
informal  meeting,  and  in  1837  ^  was  officially  established. 
The  avowed  purpose  of  the  institution  was  to  ascertain  the 
vocabulary  of  the  language,  fix  its  grammar,  and  reform  its 
style.  Two  of  the  earliest  academicians  to  gain  distinction 
were  Vaugelas  in  lexicography,  and  Chapelain  in  criticism.  In 
1636  there  appeared  a  play  which,  had  it  not  been  condemned 
by  the  new  Academy,  might  have  altered  the  course  of  French 
dramatic  literature.  This  was  Corneille's  Cid  —  romantic  in 
incident  and  conception,  vital  in  characterization,  and  natural 
in  expression.  But  with  Richelieu  it  did  not  find  favor ;  nor 
with  Chapelain,  who  condemned  it  in  the  well-known  Sentiments 
de  1'academie,  especially  for  its  violation  of  the  Aristotelian 
rules.  From  that  time  forth,  for  two  centuries,  the  dramatic 
theory  of  France  was  classical.  In  the  Examens  to  his  plays, 
Corneille  acquiesces  in  the  supremacy  of  the  Unities,  but  not 
with  a  very  sincere  heart.  Ultimately  he  stretches  them  almost 
to  breaking.  On  this  division  and  the  next  of  the  Classical 
Period,  see  Le  Due  de  Broglie,  'Malherbe'  (Paris:  1897); 
Rucktaschl,  as  above ;  Demogeot,  Tabl.  de  la  litt.  fr.  au  XVII6 
siecle  avant  Corneille, etc.  (Paris:  1859);  Pellisson  et  D'Olivet, 
Hist.  de.  1'academie  fr.  (2  vols.  Paris:  1858);  Bourgoin,  Les 
maitres  de  la  critique  au  XVII6  siecle  (1889);  E.  Deschanel,  Le 
romantisme  des  classiques  (Paris:  1883);  Rigault,  Hist,  de  Ja 
querelle  des  anciens  et  des  modernes  (Paris  :  1856);  G.  Lanson, 
'  Boileau  '  (1892),  and  other  references  in  Professor  Dowden's 
Bibliography,  Hist.  Fr.  Lit. 

(2)  A  second  division  of  the  Classical  Period  begins  with 


B.]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  433 

Rapin  and  Boileau.  Rene  de  Rapin's  chief  work  was  the 
Re'flexions  sur  la  poe'tique  et  sur  les  ouvrages  des  Poetes 
anciens  et  modernes  (Paris  :  1674  ;  with  many  alterations,  in  the 
edition  of  Paris:  1684,  and  in  vol.  II  of  his  CEuvres,  Haye: 
1725.  Translated  into  English  by  Rymer,  as  Reflections  on 
Aristotle's  Treatise  of  Poesie,  etc.,  1674,  printed  for  H.  Her- 
ringman).  For  the  influence  of  the  Reflexions  on  English 
criticism,  see  Gosse,  Modern  English  Literature,  pp.  199-200. 
"  Rapin  has  been  strangely  forgotten  ;  when  he  died  in  1687, 
he  was  the  leading  critic  of  Europe ;  and  he  is  the  writer  to 
whom,  more  than  to  any  other,  is  due  the  line  taken  by  English 
poetry  during  the  next  hundred  years.  The  peculiarity  of  the 
Reflections,  which  were  promptly  translated  into  English,  was 
that  they  aimed  at  adapting  the  laws  and  theories  of  Aristotle 
to  modern  practice.  As  is  often  the  case,  Rapin  was  less  rigid 
than  his  disciples ,  he  frequently  develops  a  surprisingly  just 
conception  of  what  the  qualities  of  the  highest  literature 
should  be."  Mr.  Gosse  calls  Rapin  the  father  of  :8th  century 
criticism.  Indeed,  Rapin  stands  in  somewhat  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  English  criticism  of  Dryden's  time  as  Boileau  to 
that  of  Pope's.  We  find  Dryden,  as  early  as  1674,  in  the 
preface  to  the  State  of  Innocence,  citing  both  Rapin  and 
Boileau  in  company  with  the  Italians  (Piccolomini,  Castelvetro) 
as  revivers  of  the  classical  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  Horace,  and 
Longinus ;  but  until  Addison  and  Pope  fell  under  the  spell  of 
Boileau  the  critical  influence  in  England  was  that  of  Rapin. 
In  France  the  Reflexions  provoked  a  controversy  in  which 
Vavassor  and  L'Enfant  participated,  —  the  former  with  his 
Remarques  (Paris:  1675)  ar)d  his  Reponse  to  Rapin  of  the 
same  year ;  and  the  latter  (L'Enfant)  with  a  Critique  des 
Remarques  (in  the  Nouv.  de  la  Republ,  des  Lettres,  Mars, 
1710).  Another  French  contemporary  of  Dryden,  and  a  critic 
of  the  same  school  with  Rapin,  was  Saint  fivremond  (1610- 
1703).  He  deserves  mention  here  because,  like  Rapin,  he 


434  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

exercised,  though  rather  by  word  of  mouth  than  by  published 
theory,  a  considerable  influence  over  English  criticism  in  the 
end  of  the  iyth  and  the  beginning  of  the  i8th  centuries.  Dur- 
ing his  residence  in  England  he  not  only  cultivated  English 
literature  but  criticised  it ;  and  one  in  reading  his  remarks  on 
Ben  Jonson's  comedy  of  humors  can  readily  appreciate  the 
salutary  effect  that  his  critical  opinions  must  have  had  upon 
Dryden.  Saint  £vremond  understood  the  scientific  importance 
of  literary  history,  and  the  advantages  of  the  comparative 
method  in  criticism  (CEuvres  publ.  par  Maizeaux.  Amst.  and 
Leipz.:  1739). 

But  the  second  division  of  this  period  finds  its  most  distin- 
guished representative  in  N.  Boileau-Despre'aux,  who,  adopting 
Malherbe's  reforms  in  general,  reacted  against  the  extrava- 
gances of  the  contemporary  Italian  influence,  and  introduced 
a  conception  of  poetry  much  more  rationalistic  and  moral  than 
that  of  Malherbe.  The  sphere  of  poetics,  which  had  been  prac- 
tically restricted  to  lyrical  theory  by  Malherbe,  Boileau  broad- 
ened so  as  to  include  that  of  epic  and  drama  as  well.  The 
characteristic  of  Boileau's  poetics  is  a  conventional  rationalism, 
which  displays  itself  in  the  rejection  of  modern  sentiments  and 
forms,  and  the  adoption  of  technique  and  ideals  supposed  to 
have  been  formulated  by  the  ancients.  He  insisted  upon  the 
imitation  of  nature,  just  as  afterwards  his  disciples  in  England, 
Pope  and  Akenside,  insisted.  But  his  Nature  had  for  its 
synonym  Reason,  and  his  Reason  was  bounded  by  the  genius 
of  the  ancients.  The  Art  poe'tique  of  Boileau  appeared  in  1674. 
See  pp.  91-109  of  his  (Euvres  completes,  publ.  Cheron,  Paris  : 
1875,  reprinted  by  Cook.  See  also  «  Boileau  '  in  §  20.  With 
regard  to  his  influence  on  English  criticism  :  "  He  had  insisted 
on  inspiration,"  says  Mr.  Gosse  (Mod.  Engl.  Lit.,  p.  206),  "on 
the  value  of  ceaseless  variety,  on  obedience  to  the  laws  of  lan- 
guage. The  preface  to  the  1701  edition  of  his  works  is  one 
of  the  landmarks  of  European  criticism,  and  we  can  scarcely 


B.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  435 

doubt  that  it  wakened  a  high  spirit  of  emulation  in  the  youthful 
Pope.  In  it  Boileau  had  urged  that  none  should  ever  be  pre- 
sented to  the  public  in  verse  but  true  thoughts  and  just  expres- 
sions. He  had  declaimed  against  frigidity  of  conceit  and 
tawdry  extravagance,  and  had  proclaimed  the  virtues  of  sim- 
plicity without  carelessness,  sublimity  without  presumption,  a 
pleasing  air  without  farce.  He  had  boldly  convicted  his  prede- 
cessors of  bad  taste,  and  had  called  his  lax  contemporaries 
to  account.  He  had  blamed  the  sterile  abundance  of  an 
earlier  period  and  the  uniformity  of  dull  writers.  Such  prin- 
ciples were  more  than  all  others  likely  to  commend  themselves 
to  Pope,  and  his  practice  shows  us  that  they  did."  His 
influence  upon  French  poetry  and  criticism  was  supreme  until 
the  days  of  Madame  de  Stael,  Chateaubriand,  and  Victor 
Hugo. 

But  even  during  the  early  dictatorship  of  Boileau,  the  suprem- 
acy of  the  ancients  was  not  altogether  undisputed.  "As  early," 
says  Professor  Dowden  (Hist.  French  Lit.,  p.  241),  "as  1657 
Desmarets  de  Saint  Sorlin  had  maintained  that  Christian 
heroism  and  Christian  faith  afforded  material  for  imaginative 
handling  more  suitable  to  a  Christian  poet  than  the  history  and 
fables  of  antiquity."  To  this  Boileau  had  replied  in  his  Art 
poetique.1  In  1687  Charles  Perrault  read  a  poem  before  the 
Academy  entitled  Le  siecle  de  Louis  le  Grand,  in  which  he 
exalted  modern  poetic  genius  and  performance  above  that  of 
the  ancients.  The  contention  of  Perrault  was  supported  by 
Fontenelle  in  his  Discours  sur  I'e'glogue  and  the  Digression  sur 
les  anciens  et  les  modernes.  (For  a  review  of  Fontenelle's  Re- 
flexions sur  la  poesie,  see  E.  Egger's  La  critique  chez  les  Grecs, 
p.  271.)  From  1688  to  1697  Perrault  continued  to  maintain 
his  thesis  in  a  series  of  dialogues  called  Parallele  des  anciens 

1  The  parallelism  between  movements  in  English  and  in  French  Literature  is 
here,  again,  of  especial  interest.  This  idea  of  Desmarets,  for  instance,  had  been 
expressed  by  Davenant  in  the  Preface  to  Gondibert,  just  seven  years  earlier. 


436  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

et  des  modernes.  The  cause  of  the  ancients  was  meanwhile 
espoused  by  Boileau  (Reflexions  sur  Longin),  La  Fontaine 
(Epitre  a  Huet),  La  Bruyere  (Les  caracteres),  and  Andr. 
Dacier,  who  in  the  Preface  to  his  Poetique  d'Aristote  (1692) 
goes  so  far  as  to  say  of  poetry,  not  merely  that  the  art  is  unal- 
terably established,  but  that  "  ses  regies  sont  si  certainement 
celles  qu'Aristote  nous  donne,  qu'il  est  impossible  d'y  reussir 
par  un  autre  chemin."  The  issue  was  somewhat  modified  by 
Lamotte,  who  advocated  the  claim  of  cultivated  (that  is,  modern) 
prose  as  the  best  literary  form.  Against  him  Mme.  Dacier 
entered  the  lists.  Finally,  Fenelon,  toward  the  close  of  his 
life  (1715),  "stated  the  case  of  the  ancients  against  the  mod- 
erns, and  of  the  moderns  against  the  ancients,  with  an  attempt 
at  impartiality ;  but  it  is  evident  that  the  writer's  love  was 
chiefly  given  to  his  favorite  classical  authors."  (See  Dowden 
for  the  materials  of  this  account.  Hist.  French  Lit.  London: 
1897.) 

Since  the  appearance  of  Boileau's  Art  poetique,  the  stream 
of  similar  treatises  had  steadily  been  flowing.  In  1709  was 
issued  Le  Bossu's  Traite  du  poeme  e'pique.  In  England  it 
shared  the  popularity  of  Rapin.  In  1719  the  Abbe  J.  B.  Dubos 
produced  his  Reflexions  critiques  sur  la  poe'sie  et  la  peinture 
(3  vols.  Paris  :  1740),  which,  according  to  Professor  Dowden, 
"  anticipates  the  views  of  Montesquieu  on  the  influence  of 
climate,  and  studies  the  action  of  environment  on  the  products 
of  the  imagination."  Dubos  had  a  just  conception  —  even  if 
crude —  of  the  aesthetic  catharsis,  and  a  decidedly  modern  way 
of  looking  at  the  relation  of  drama  to  life.  Batteux,  who  follows 
him,  in  1746,  with  Les  beaux  arts  reduits  a  un  meme  principe, 
had  a  much  more  liberal  conception  of  the  idealizing  function  of 
art  than  either  Boileau  or  Rapin. 

(3)  Indeed,  Dubos  and  Batteux  might,  perhaps,  better  be 
regarded,  with  Voltaire  and  Diderot,  as  representatives  of  the 
third,  or  philosophical,  division  of  the  Classical  Period.  Beside 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  437 

the  Quatre  Poetiques,  two  other  productions  of  Batteux  go  to 
prove  the  originality  of  his  view  :  the  Analyse  de  la  poetique 
d'Aristote,  in  vol.  XLI,  p.  409  et-  seq.,  of  the  Memoires  de 
1'Acade'mie  des  inscriptions,  and  the  Quatre  Memoires  (on 
the  nature  and  aims  of  Tragedy  and  of  Comedy  ;  and  on  the 
Epic  compared  with  Tragedy  and  History),  in  vol.  XXXIX, 
p.  54  et  seq.,  of  the  same  series  (also  printed  together,  Gen. : 
1781).  The  character  of  Voltaire's  earlier  theories  is  suffi- 
ciently indicated  in  his  youthful  Essai  sur  la  poesie  epique,  and 
his  Temple  du  gout  (1733).  He  adopts  Christian  symbolism, 
advocates  the  introduction  of  both  national  and  exotic  ele- 
ments, and  admires  Shakespeare.  But  with  the  development  of 
the  scientific  spirit  and  of  philosophical  criticism  he  becomes 
more  conservative,  and,  though  still  preferring  modern  to 
ancient  poetry,  eschews  the  "  savagery  "  of  Shakespeare.  A 
sample  of  the  formal  quality  of  his  later  literary  opinion  is 
afforded  by  his  Commentary  on  Corneille.  Another  philosophi- 
cal treatise,  Rousseau's  Discours  sur  les  sciences  et  les  arts,  of 
1750,  condemning,  as  it  did,  civilization  on  the  ground  that  it 
corrupted  morals  and  natural  freedom,  must  have  awakened 
critics  to  the  advisability  of  studying  art  and  poetry  in  their 
social  relations.  Louis  Racine's  Reflexions  sur  la  poesie  is, 
on  the  other  hand,  a  formal  treatise,  though  it  appeared  two 
years  later  than  Rousseau's.  But  Buffon's  Discours  de  recep- 
tion, of  1753,  develops  an  essentially  modern  and  philosophical 
argument  for  the  intrinsic  individuality  of  style.  Style  proceeds 
from  within,  is  the  expression  of  the  idea,  not  a  mould  imposed 
upon  the  idea  from  without. 

The  criticism  of  the  encyclopaedists,  who  constitute  the 
really  philosophical  school  of  the  century,  is  both  of  drama 
and  poetry,  in  the  narrower  acceptation  of  the  latter  term. 
D'Alembert's  filoges  (D'Alembert,  1717-83.  CEuvres.  5  vols. 
Paris:  1821-22)  are  distinguished  by  impartiality  of  method. 
Diderot,  much  of  whose  critical  work  first  appeared  in  Les 


438  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§  21. 

Feuilles  de  Grimm,  makes  there,  and  in  the  prefaces  to  his 
plays  (Pere  de  famille  and  Le  fils  naturel),  an  effort  toward 
emancipation  from  the  classical  conventionalities.  "  Every- 
where," says  Saintsbury  (Hist.  French  Lit.,  p.  462),  "there  is 
to  be  perceived  the  cardinal  principle  of  sound  criticism  ;  that 
a  book  is  to  be  judged,  not  according  to  arbitrary  rules  laid 
down  ex  cathedra  for  the  class  of  books  to  which  it  is  supposed 
to  belong,  but  according  to  the  scheme  of  its  author  in  the  first 
place,  and  in  the  second  to  the  general  laws  of  aesthetics ;  a 
science  which,  if  the  Germans  named  it,  Diderot,  by  their  own 
confession,  did  much  to  create."  He  made  the  return  to  nature 
in  his  poetics,  and  attempted  to  do  so  in  his  dramas  —  giving 
us  not  mere  types,  but  actual  characters.  For  the  strictly 
defined  tragedy  and  comedy  of  the  former  epoch  he  substituted 
the  play  of  the  bourgeoisie  —  the  drame  or  melodrama.  This 
movement  was,  of  course,  assisted  by  the  vogue  of  Marivaux's 
comedie  larmoyante,  and  by  sentimental  novels,  such  as  his  Mari- 
anne. And  the  same  movement  was  further  advanced  by  J.  J. 
Rousseau's  advocacy,  in  his  Lettre  k  D'Alembert,  in  1758,  Sur 
les  spectacles,  in  which  he  censures  the  theatre  of  the  day,  with 
its  sentimental  and  imaginative  adventures,  and  insists  upon  the 
cessation  of  spectacles  based  upon  the  afflictions  of  noble  and 
royal  characters,  upon  the  introduction  of  popular  interests  and 
individualities,  and  the  manifestation  of  a  desire  to  teach,  to 
moralize. 

In  1786  the  historical  method  in  criticism  is  illustrated  by 
the  practice  of  La  Harpe  (Lycee  lectures  —  Cours  de  littera- 
ture),  but,  unfortunately,  not  by  the  contemporary  essays  for  the 
Encyclopaedia  written  by  Marmontel,  and  collected  in  1787, 
under  the  title  Elements  de  la  litterature.  These  adopt  an  atti- 
tude of  unreasoning  admiration  for  Boileau,  and  judge  all  poetry 
by  the  productions  and  laws  of  the  classical  school.  As  an 
instance  of  the  contemporary  antagonism  to  the  encyclopae- 
dists and  philosophers  should  be  read  the  effusions  of  Freron 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS  439 

in  LAnnee  litteraire  (see  Villemain,  Tabl.  de  la  litt.  au  XVIIIe 
siecle.  4  vols.,  Paris:  1841;  Lebasteur,  'Buffon.'  Paris:  1888; 
Desnoiresterres, 'Voltaire,' etc.  8  vols.,  Paris:  1871-76;  Saint- 
Marc  Girardin,  'J.  J.  Rousseau.'  2  vols.,  Paris:  1875;  Rei- 
nach, 'Diderot.'  Paris  :  1894  ;  Bertrand,  'D'Alembert.'  Paris: 
1889;  and  other  references  in  Dowden's  Bibliography). 

(4)  An  entirely  different  movement  from  these  characterizes 
the  poetics  of  the  fourth  division  of  the  Classical  School.  Andre 
Chenier  (1762-1794)  has  been  called  a  precursor  of  the  Ro- 
mantic School  ;  but  this,  says  Saintsbury,  is  a  mistake.  His 
aesthetic  was  at  once  imaginative  and  traditional.  Though 
possessed  of  a  natural  idealism,  this  did  not  lead  him  to  dis- 
regard the  models  of  antiquity.  He  revived  indeed  the  reforms 
of  Ronsard,  but  not  from  any  artificial  or  childish  fondness  for 
the  ancient  —  rather  from  a  genuine  love  of  nature  and  of 
classical  paganism.  "  A  Greek  by  birthplace,  and  half  a  Greek 
by  blood,  his  tastes  and  standards  were  wholly  classical.  But 
the  fire  and  force  of  his  poetic  genius  made  the  blood  circulate 
afresh  in  the  veins  of  the  old  French  classical  traditions,  without, 
however,  permanently  strengthening  or  renovating  it  "  (Saints- 
bury,  Hist.  Fr.  Lit.,  p.  402).  He  knew  Greek  literature  and 
the  Greek  language  much  better  than  Ronsard,  Malherbe,  and 
Boileau  had  known  it.  His  verse  has  the  Grecian  purity. 
His  "  humanism  "  may  be  called  natural  as  opposed  to  the 
literary  "  humanism "  of  Ronsard.  Chenier's  principal  con- 
tribution to  poetics  proper  was  the  Poeme  de  1'invention. 
It  would  appear  that,  all  things  considered,  the  Romantic 
movement  was  not  without  obligation  to  Chenier  —  but  that 
perhaps  his  influence  is  most  evident  in  the  practice  and 
theory  of  the  Parnassiens  of  the  present  century. 

The  Fourth  Period  of  French  poetics  is  the  Romantic ;  and 
to  it  the  Transition  was  made  by  Madame  de  Stael  and  Cha- 
teaubriand. 

(i)  Madame  de  StaeTs  De   la  litterature  considered  dans 


440  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

ses  rapports  avec  les  institutions  sociales  (1800)  reminds  one 
of  Gibbon's  Essay  on  the  History  of  Literature  and  of  Shaftes- 
bury's  doctrine  of  cosmopolitan  culture.  Like  the  former,  the 
authoress  attempts  to  show  that  literature  is  an  affair  of  the 
spirit  and  can  proceed  only  from  conditions  of  freedom  and 
progress  ;  and,  like  the  latter,  to  encourage  her  fellow  country- 
men to  assimilate  the  best  that  is  offered  by  other  nations  and 
literatures.  By  her  De  1'Allemagne  (1813)  she  introduced 
German  literature  to  France  as  De  Quincey  and  Carlyle  were 
soon  to  introduce  it  to  England.  Her  influence  over  Wilhelm 
von  Schlegel,  who  "became  the  interpreter  of  Germany  to  her 
eager  and  apprehensive  mind,"  is  noticed  by  Dowden.  Italy 
and  England  also  were  conquered  by  her  ;  and  she  prepared 
the  way  in  no  slight  degree  "for  the  Romantic  movement.  .  .  . 
She  advanced  criticism  by  her  sense  that  art  and  literature 
are  relative  to  ages,  races,  governments,  environments.  She 
dreamed  of  an  European  or  cosmopolitan  literature  in  which 
each  nation,  while  retaining  its  special  characteristics,  should 
be  in  fruitful  communication  with  its  fellows."  With  Chateau- 
briand we  enter  upon  a  revival  of  mediaeval  religious  and 
aesthetic  sentiment,  his  most  important  critical  work  being  the 
Genie  du  christianisme  (1802).  He  calls  for  a  sentimental, 
romantic,  but  spontaneous  and  modern,  treatment  of  life.  And 
it  may,  indeed,  be  said  that  Madame  de  Stael  and  Chateau- 
briand effected  the  overthrow  of  the  sceptical,  atheistic,  and 
unscientific  interpretation  of  literature  and  art ;  they  did  away 
with  classical  models  and  abstract  rules ;  they  introduced  the 
appeal  to  the  imagination  and  the  senses;  they  revived  the 
spontaneous  and  artistic  characteristics  of  mediaeval  lyricism, 
and  Christianized  nature  and  man  for  the  purposes  of  litera- 
ture. 

Various  other  forces  had  been  working  during  this  season 
of  transition  to  hasten  the  advent  of  a  romantic  conception 
of  the  poetic  and  a  comparative  method  of  criticism.  In 


B.}  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  441 

1801  Baour-Lotmian  gave  his  countrymen  the  flavor  of 
Macpherson  in  the  Poe'sies  Ossianiques ;  and  later  (1812) 
Creuze  de  Lesser  produced  his  Table  ronde.  In  1799  Senan- 
cour  had  produced  his  melancholy  Reveries ;  and  after  the 
death  of  Joubert,  1825,  appeared  a  collection  of  that  author's 
prose  poems,  the  Pensees.  In  1811  Ginguene  published  the 
beginnings  of  his  Histoire  litte'raire  de  1'Italie.  Historical 
and  philological  studies  were  meanwhile  prosecuted  by  Fauriel 
and  Raynouard,  and  minor  critics  were  feeling  their  way  toward 
a  comparative  and  psychological  method.  "  Foreign  life  and 
literature,"  says  Dowden,  who  mentions,  in  various  places,  the 
preceding  facts,  "lent  their  aid  to  the  Romantic  movement  in 
France  —  the  passion  and  mystery  of  the  East ;  the  struggle 
for  freedom  in  Greece ;  the  old  ballads  of  Spain ;  the  mists,  the 
solitudes,  the  young  heroes,  the  pallid  female  forms  of  Ossian  ; 
the  feudal  splendors  of  Scott ;  the  melancholy  Harold  ;  the 
mysterious  Manfred ;  Goethe's  champion  of  freedom,  his  victim 
of  sensibility,  his  seeker  for  the  fountain  of  living  knowledge ; 
Schiller's  revolters  against  social  law,  and  his  adventures  of 
court  and  camp "  (Hist."  French  Lit.,  p.  364).  There  were 
also  changes  in  language  and  form,  "of  which  Hugo  and 
Sainte-Beuve  were  the  chief  initiators." 

The  way  for  the  poetics  of  Hugo  was  still  further  prepared 
by  Henri  Beyle  (Stendhal,  1 783-1842),  whose  chief  contributions 
to  criticism  were  his  Histoire  de  la  peinture  en  Italic  and  the 
Racine  et  Shakespeare.  His  method  was  comparative  and 
psychological,  and  in  his  habit  of  characterizing  the  poet  by 
his  milieu  he  was  the  precursor  of  Taine  and  Brunetiere.  "  In 
temperament,"  says  Saintsbury,  "  religious  views  and  social 
ideas,  he  was  a  belated  philosopher  of  the  Diderot  school.  But 
in  literature  he  had  improved  even  on  Diderot,  and  very  nearly 
anticipated  the  full  results  of  the  Romantic  movement.  ...  In 
his  De  1'amour  and  in  his  novels  he  made  himself  the  ancestor 
of  what  has  been  called  successively  realism  and  naturalism  in 


442  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

France."     Stendhal  merits  the  serious  attention  of  the  literary 
investigator. 

The  history  of  criticism  during  the  rest  of  the  Romantic 
period  may  be  conveniently  treated  under  the  following  heads, 
of  which  the  first  two  refer  to  theory,  the  other  to  method  : 

(2)  The    Romantic    Revolution   in  the   Drama.     This  was 
effected  by  Victor  Hugo's  Preface  to  Cromwell,  1828,  and  his 
Hernani,  1830.      Hugo  definitely  discards  the  'unities,'  declines 
all  artificial  limitations,  and  asserts  that  art  should  represent 
the  whole   truth,  no  matter   what   kind   of  aesthetic   emotion 
may  result. 

(3)  The  Philosophical  and  Comparative  Studies  of  Cousin 
(1792-1868),  whose  Du  vrai,  du  beau,  et  du  bien  is  one  of  the 
ablest  treatises  in  aesthetics  produced  in  France  ;  of  Michelet 
(1798-1874),  whose  philosophy,  like  that  of  Cousin,  shows  the 
influence  of    Herder  and  Hegel ;   and   of    Edgar  Quinet,  the 
bosom  friend  of  Michelet  and  a  sympathizer  in  his  aesthetic 
views. 

(4)  The  Scientific-Historical  Movement,  headed  by  Villemain, 
who,  in  his  Tableau  de  la  litte'rature  au  moyen  age,  in  the  Tab- 
leau  de   la   litterature   au  XVIII6  siecle,  and  in  his  lectures, 
applied  a  method  inclusive  of  the  social,  biographical,  genetic, 
and    comparative    aspects    of    the    subject    under  discussion. 
The  resulting  criticism  was  characterized  by  impartiality,  san- 
ity, and  scientific  decisiveness  that  placed  it  far  in  advance  of 
that  produced  by  preceding  critics.     Villemain  was  seconded 
by  Saint-Marc  Girardin  and  Sainte-Beuve,  the  latter  of  whom 
was  probably  the  greatest  critic  of  the  century.     Sainte-Beuve 
incorporates  the  romantic,  historical,  social,  and  psychological 
attempts  of  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries  under  a  new 
method,  at  once  more  logical,  more  scientific,  and  more  imagi- 
native than  theirs  —  a  method  which  has  been   justly  called 
the  naturalistic.     Of  his  work  an  admirable  estimate  will  be 
found  in   Pellissier's  Le  mouvement  litte'raire  au  XIXe  siecle 


B.}  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  443 

(Paris:  1891),  and  in  Dowden.  The  latter  says  that,  "wander- 
ing endlessly  from  author  to  author  in  his  Portraits  litteraires 
and  Portraits  contemporaires,  Sainte-Beuve  studied  in  all  its 
details  what  we  may  term  the  physiology  of  each."  His  long 
research  in  "  his  most  sustained  work,  '  Port- Royal,'  led  him  to 
recognize  certain  types  or  families  under  which  the  various 
minds  of  men  can  be  grouped  and  classified."  So,  also,  in  his 
Causeries  du  Lundi  and  the  Nouveaux  Lundis.  "  They  formed, 
as  it  were,  a  natural  history  of  intellects  and  temperaments. 
He  did  not  pretend  to  reduce  criticism  to  a  science ;  he  hoped 
that  at  length,  as  a  result  of  numberless  observations,  some- 
thing like  a  science  might  come  into  existence.  Meanwhile 
he  would  cultivate  the  relative  and  distrust  the  absolute." 
To  estimate  a  work,  he  studies  the  personality  of  the  author, 
his  conditions,  his  inherited  qualities,  his  education,  life  — 
everything  that  can  be  ascertained  concerning  him.  Thus  he 
aims  to  discover  the  key  to  the  secret  of  his  literary  utterances. 
This  is  the  method,  according  to  Professor  Dowden,  "  which 
has  best  served  the  study  of  literature  in  the  igth  century." 
It  is  largely  the  method  of  Matthew  Arnold,  whose  success, 
however,  hardly  equaled  that  of  his  master,  Sainte-Beuve.  (For 
further  remarks  on  Sainte-Beuve,  see  §  2  above.) 

(5)  The  Reaction  against  Liberal  Methods  on  the  part  of 
Nisard  and  his  followers,  who  reverted  to  an  abstract,  authori- 
tative, and  individual  standard,  and  attempted  to  test  the  author 
in  question  by  that.  On  all  these  methods,  see  the  concluding 
chapter  of  Professor  Dowden's  excellent  History,  and  refer  to 
the  annotations  on  the  several  authors  in  §§  2,  5,  8,  etc.,  above. 

The  Fifth  Period  of  Criticism  includes  the  movement  of  art 
for  art's  sake,  whose  representatives,  de  Vigny,  Thdophile  Gau- 
tier,  Theod.  de  Banville,  Leconte  de  Lisle,  Sully-Prudhomme, 
etc.,  are  called  the  Parnassiens.  This  movement  is  character- 
ized by  a  revolt  against  the  excesses  of  the  Romantic  school, 
and  a  revival  of  a  more  philosophical  and  rationalistic  theory 


444  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

of  inspiration.  It  cultivates  accuracy  in  form,  and  aims  in 
an  aesthetic  fashion  at  sculptural  and  picturesque  effects  of 
style.  Its  doctrines  may,  in  fact,  be  compared  with  the  much 
more  refined  aestheticism  or  hedonism  of  Walter  Pater. 

The  period  includes,  also,  important  developments  in  scien- 
tific criticism  ;  the  esthopsychological  of  Hennequin,  the  natu- 
ralistic (historically  objective)  of  Taine,  the  national  and 
eidographic  of  Brunetiere,  etc. ;  for  which  see  above,  §§  2  and 
5.  At  the  present  moment  especial  attention  is  directed  to 
Jos.  Texte's  revival  of  the  comparative  or  cosmopolitan  ideal 
advocated  by  Rousseau,  and  adopted  by  Mme.  de  Stae'l, 
Villemain,  and  Sainte-Beuve  (see  Texte's  fitudes  de  lit. 
europeenne,  Paris  :  1898).  Other  writers  of  theoretical  and 
applied  criticism  during  the  century  have  been  frequently  men- 
tioned in  these  pages,  or  will  demand  mention  in  the  next 
volume  of  this  work.  Some  of  the  more  important  are  Paul 
Albert,  E\  Faguet,  Nettement,  J.  J.  Ampere,  Jules  Lemaitre, 
Gaston  Paris,  Edm.  Scherer,  Anatole  France,  Petit  de  Julle- 
ville,  Bernard  Thales  (Hist,  de  la  poe'sie  :  1864),  Pellissier, 
Aubertin,  Leon  Gautier,  J.  Bedier,  Lenient,  Langlois,  Jeanroy, 
A.  Darmesteter,  E\  Egger,  Vinet,  A.  Dupuy,  Demogeot,  Guizot, 
Deschanel,  Rigault,  Lanson,  P.  Janet,  Pellisson,  Caro,  Sorel, 
Desnoiresterres,  G.  Larroumet,  Geruzez. 

In  dramatic  theory  and  practice,  meanwhile,  fimile  Augierand 
Alexandre  Dumas  have  instituted  a  reaction  against  romanticism 
that  is  as  realistic  as  that  of  the  Parriassiens  is  aesthetic.  (See 
Brandes,  Hauptstromungen,  etc.  ;  Pellissier,  Le  mouvement 
litt.  au  XIXe  siecle,  1891;  Th.  Gautier,  Hist,  du  romantisme, 
1874;  Brunetiere,  L'£volution  de  la  poe'sie  lyrique  en  France 
au  XIXe  siecle,  2  vols.,  1894,  and  other  referencesjn  Dowden, 
p.  436.)  On  the  minor  French  schools  of  poetry  and  their  the- 
ories, les  decadents,  les  symbolistes,  etc.,  see  Rev.  Bleue,  47  : 
442,  721  ;  Harper,  87  :  858  The  Decadent  Movement  in  Litera- 
ture; J.  H.  Leuba  in  the  Am.Journ.  PsychoL,  July,  1893. 


£.]  THE   HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  445 

In  the  study  of  the  history  of  French  poetics,  Saintsbury  and 
Dowden,  to  whom  reference  has  been  frequently  made  in  this 
chapter,  will  be  found  very  useful  ;  also  Petit  de  Julleville  (Hist, 
de  la  langue  et  de  la  litterature  frang.,  and  his  shorter  Hist, 
de  la  litt.  frang.)  ;  Lanson  (Hist,  de  la  litt.  frang.)  ;  Korting 
(Encykl.  d.  roman.  philol.),  and  other  references  as  in  §§  21, 
A  5,  and  24,  B  6. 

Of  the  periodicals  the  most  important  to  the  student  are  : 
Ausgaben  und  Abhandlungen  aus  dem  Gebiete  der  romanischen 
Philologie,  veroffentlicht  von  E.  Stengel  (Marburg :  1882-89); 
Franzosische  Studien,  herausg.  von  G.  Korting  und  E.  Koschnitz 
(Heilbronn  :  1881)  ;  Romanische  Studien,  herausg.  von  Edward 
Bohmer,  Halle;  Revue  des  langues  romanes,  Montpellier  et 
Paris ;  Revue  critique  d'histoire  et  de  litterature,  Paris  ;  Biblio- 
theque  de  T  Ecole  des  Chartes,  Paris  ;  Bibliotheque  de  r  Ecole  des 
Hautes  Etudes,  Paris  ;  Journal  des  Savants,  Paris  ;  Revue  de 
philologie  fran$ aise  et  proven$ale. 

5.  IN  OTHER  ROMANCE  LITERATURES.  —  It  is  especially  a 
matter  of  regret  that  space  does  not  permit  an  historical  outline 
of  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Portuguese  poetics.  Some  of  the  more 
important  among  Italian  writers  are,  however,  mentioned  in 
paragraph  (i),  Latin  treatises,  above  ;  in  §  24,  B  8,  and  in  the 
appendix  to  this  volume  (on  Aristotle's  Poetics).  The  following 
enumeration  is  principally  derived  from  Blankenburg,  and  may 
be  supplemented  from  him  (Literarische  Zusatze,  i  1381-411), 
or  from  any  of  the  histories  of  Italian  literature. 

(a)  Italian.  —  Giov.  Gior.  Trissino,  La  Poetica,  Divisione 
IV  (Vicenze  :  1529)  ;  Divis.  V  e  VI  (Ven/:  1563)  ;  Tutte  le 
Opere  (2  vols.  in  i.  Verona  :  1729.  The  Poetica,  although 
not  responsible,  as  has  been  frequently  supposed,  for  the  intro- 
duction of  the  laws  of  the  three  unities  into  France,  is  still 
historically  of  greater  importance  than  most  of  the  formal 
'poetics  '  produced  in  Italy  during  the  i6th  and  iyth  centuries); 
Lud.  Dolce,  whose  translation  of  Horace's  Epistle  to  the  Pisos 


446  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

(Ven.  :  1535  and  1559)  is  accompanied  by  a  commentary; 
Bern.  Danielo,  La  Poetica  (Ven.  :  1536);  Bernardo  Segni,  who 
published  a  translation  into  the  Italian  of  the  Poetics  and  the 
Rhetoric  of  Aristotle  (Flor.  :  1549);  Ben.  Varchi,  Lezioni 
della  Poetica  e  della  Poesia  (in  Lezioni  lette  publicamente  nell' 
Acad.  Florentina.  Flor.:  1549);  Const.  Landi,  Libro  primo 
della  Poetica  (Piac.  :  1549);  Girol.  Muzio,  Dell'  Arte  poetica, 
Libri  Tre  (in  Rime  diverse.  Ven.:  1551);  Giamb.  Giraldi 
Cintio,  Discorsi  intorno  all  comporre  de'  Romanzi,  delle  Gome- 
die  e  delle  Tragedie,  e  di  altre  maniere  de  Poesie  (Vineg.  : 
1554)  ;  Giov.  P.  Capriano,  Della  vera  Poetica,  Libro  Uno 
(Vin.  :  1555)  ;  Bernardo  Tasso,  Ragionamento  della  Poesia 
(Vin.  :  1562,  and  in  his  Lettere,  vol.  2.  Pad.  :  1733)  ;  Ant. 
Minturno,  L'  Arte  poetica  (Ven.:  1564);  Lud.  Castelvetro, 
the  Poetics  of  Aristotle,  text,  translation,  and  commentary 
(Vienna:  1570.  Most  important);  Al.  Piccolomini,  a  trans- 
lation of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  with  notes  (Sienna:  1572.  Also 
scholarly  and  luminous)  ;  Giov.  Andr.  Gilio  da  Fabriano,  La 
Topica  poetica  (Vineg.  :  1580);  Agnolo  Segni,  Ragionamento 
sopra  le  Cose  pertinente  alia  Poetica  (Flor.  :  1581)  ;  Franc. 
Patrici,  Della  Poetica  la  Deca  disputata  (Ferr.  :  1586.  Sug- 
gestive of  novel  points  of  view);  Torquato  Tasso.  Discorsi  dell' 
Arte  poetica,  e  in  particolare  del  Poema  eroico  (Ven.  :  1587. 
Three  discourses  on  the  choice,  the  arrangement,  and  the 
handling  of  material);  Gias.  de  Nores,  Discorso  intorno  a  quej 
principj,  cagione  e  accrescimenti,  che  la  Comedia,  la  Tragedia, 
e  '1  Poema  eroico  ricevano  dalla  Filosofia  morale  e  civile,  e  da' 
Governatori  delle"  Republiche  (Pad.  :  1587),  and  a  continua- 
tion of  the  same,  Poetica  .  .  .  nella  quale  per  Via  di  Diffinizione 
e  de  Divisione  si  tratta,  secondo  1'  Opinione  d'  Aristotile,  della 
Tragedia,  del  Poema  eroico,  e  della  Comedia  (Pad.  :  1588. 
The  judgments  passed  upon  tragi-comedy  and  the  Pastor  Fido 
of  Guarini  led  to  a  literary  controversy)  ;  Giov.  Fabbrini  da 
Fighine,  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace,  translation  in  blank  verse, 


B.-]  THE  HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  447 

and  notes  (in  the  Opere.  Ven.  :  1587) ;  Giul.  Ces.  Cortese, 
Avvertimenti  nel  poetare  (Nap.:  1591);  Franc.  Buonamici, 
Discorsi  poetici  in  difesa  d' Aristotile  (Flor.  :  1597.  Directed 
against  the  position  assumed  by  Castelvetro) ;  Faustino  Summo, 
Discorsi  poetici  ne'  quali  si  discorrono  le  piu  principali  quis- 
tioni  di  Poesia,  e  si  dichiarono  molti  luoghi  dubbj  e  difficili 
intorno  all'  Arte  del  poetare,  secondo  la  Mente  d'  Aristotile,  di 
Platone,  e  di  altri  buoni  Autori  (Pad.  :  1600)  ;  Giov.  Bern. 
Brandi,  Trattato  dell'  Arte  poetica  (in  his  Rosario  di  Maria 
Vergine.  Rom.  :  1601);  Chiodino  da  Monte  Melone,  Specul. 
Poet.  Aristot.  (in  his  Rhetoric.  Ven.  :  1613)  ;  Orat.  Marta, 
Sposizione  della  Poetica  d'  Aristotile  (in  his  Rime  e  Prose. 
Nap.  :  1616)  ;  Cam.  Pellegrino,  Discorso  della  Poetica  (Ven.  : 
1618)  ;  Udeno  Nisieli  (pseud,  for  Ben.  Fioretti),  Proginnasmi 
poetici  (Flor.  :  1620-39)  5  Giov.  Colle  Bellunese,  Ragiona- 
menti  poetici  e  risposte  sopra  la  Poetica  d'  Aristotile  (in  his 
Acad.  Colle  Bellunese.  Ven.:  1621);  Celso  Zani,  Poetica 
ecclesiastica  e  civile  .  .  .  nella  quale  si  pone  in  chiaro  la  Diffi- 
nizione  della  Poesia  commune  alia  Tragedia  e  all'  Epopeja 
(Rom.  :  1643)  ;  Flav.  Querengo,  Trattato  della  Poesia  (Pad.  : 
1644)  ;  Loretto  Mattei,  translation  of  Horace's  Ars  Poetica 
(Bol.  :  1686)  ;  and  Ces.  Grazzini,  translation  of  the  same 
(Ferr.  :  1698)  ;  Bened.  Menzini,  Arte  poetica  (Rom.  :  1690); 
Nic.  Cicognari,  Discorso  di  nuova  Invenzione  disegnato  sul'  Idee 
d' amico  e  celebre  Poeta  (Parma:  1696);  Giov.  Mar.  Crescim- 
beni,  La  Bellezza  della  volgar  Poesia  (Rom.:  1700.  Enlarged 
in  the  sixth  volume  of  his  Istoria  della  volgar  Poesia.  Ven.  : 
1730);  Vine.  Gravina,  Della  Ragione  poetica,  Libri  Due  (Rom. : 
1704);  Lud.  Ant.  Muratori,  Della  perfetta  Poesia  italiana, 
spiegata  e  dimostrata  (Moden. :  1706.  Crescimbeni,  Gravina, 
and  Muratori  are  of  prime  importance  to  the  historian);  Pietro 
Jac.  Martelli,  Della  Poetica,  Sermoni  (in  his  Versi  e  Prose. 
Rom.:  1710);  F.  Palesi,  Delia  Poetica,  Libri  Tre  (Palerm. : 
1734);  Scip.  Maffei,  Discours  sur  1' Histoire  et  le  Ge'nie  des 


448  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

Poetes  Italians  (in  the  Bibl.  italique,  i  :  223-278;  2  :  176- 
324,  Gen.  :  1728);  Giov.  Salio,  Esame  critico  intorno  a  varie 
Sentenze  d'  alcuni  Scrittori  di  Cose  poetiche  (Pad. :  1738)  ;  Frc. 
Quadrio,  Delia  Storia  e  della  Ragione  d'  ogni  Poesia  (7  vols. 
Bol.  e  Milan.  :  1739-1752.  One  of  the  standard  treatises- 
historical  and  theoretical) ;  Carlo  Denina,  Saggio  sopra  la 
Letteratura  italiana  (Tor.:  1762);  Frc.  Maria  Zanotti,  Dell' 
Arte  poetica,  Ragionamenti  cinque  (Bologna:  1768);  Girol. 
Tiraboschi,  Storia  della  Letteratura  italiana  (Mod.:  1772-1782; 
10  vols.  in  13  parts,  Fir.  :  1780).  Of  later  writers  on  poetics 
mention  is  made  in  §  24,  B  8,  below. 

(If)  Spanish.  —  The  following  list  may  serve  to  direct  the 
student  to  some  of  the  earlier  authorities  ;  it  may  be  supple- 
mented from  Blankenburg  (Literarische  Zusatze),  whence  it  is 
principally  derived,  and  from  the  histories  of  Spanish  literature. 

Enrico  de  Villena,  Libro  del  arte  de  trovar,  o  gaya  ciencia 
(of  which  Blankenburg,  Lit.  Zusatze,  1 :  394,  says  that  an  extract 
is  to-be  found  in  the  Origines  de  la  lengua  Espanola  of  Gregorio 
de  Mayans  y  Siscar,  vol.  II,  321,  and  mention  of  it  in  Warton's 
History  of  English  Poetry,  vol.  Ill,  349,  note  x);  Juan  de  la 
Enzina,  Arte  de  Poesia  Castellana  (in  his  Cancionero.  Sev. : 
1501;  Zarag. :  1516);  Ped.  Seraphi,  De  poesia  vulgar  en  lengua 
Catalana  (Bare.:  1565);  Mig.  Sanchez  de  Viana,  Arte  poetica 
Castellana  (Ale.  :  1580)  ;  Juan  de  la  Cueva,  Egemplar  poetico, 
o  arte  poet.  Espanola  (a  didactic  poem,  circa  1582  ;  in  the  Par- 
nasso  Espanol.  Mad.:  1774,  vol.  VIII,  p.  i  et  seg.);  Vine, 
da  Espinel,  a  translation  of  Horace's  Epistle  to  the  Pisos  (in 
blank  verse,  in  Espinel's  Rimas.  Mad.:  1591,  and  in  the 
Parnasso  Espanol,  vol.  I,  p.  i  et  seq?);  Luis  de  Zapata,  a  trans- 
lation of  the  same  Epistle  (Lisb.  :  1592)  ;  Juan  Garcio  Rengifo, 
Arte  poetica  Espanola  (Salam.:  1592);  Hier.  de  Mondragon, 
Arte  para  componer  en  metro  Castellano  dividida  en  dos  partes 
(pt.  I,  on  verse  ;  pt.  II,  the  composition  of  the  various  kinds  of 
poetry.  Zarag.  :  1593)  ;  Al.  Lopez  Pinciano,  Philosophia  anti- 


B.]  THE    HISTORICAL   STUDY  OF  POETICS.  449 

gua  poetica  (Mad.  :  1596)  ;  Villen  de  Biedma,  translation  of  the 
Epistle  to  the  Pisos  (Gran.  :  1599)  ;  Luis  Alonzo  de  Carvallo, 
Cisne  de  Apolo  de  las  Excelencias  y  dignidad  y  todo  lo  que  al 
arte  poetica  y  versificatoria  pertenece  (Med.  :  1602) ;  Lope  da 
Vega  Carpio,  Nueva  Arte  de  hazer  comedias  en  este  tiempo 
(in  his  Rimas  humanas.  Mad.:  1602);  Andr.  Rey  de  Artieda, 
a  Satire  on  Spanish  Comedy  (in  an  Epistle  in  his  Discursos, 
Epist.  e  Epigr.  Zarag.,  1605,  and  in  Parnasso  Espanol,  vol.  I, 
p.  352);  Chr.  de  Mesa,  Compendio  de  la  poetica  en  versos 
(in  his  Rimas.  Mad.  :  1607  and  1611);  Franc.  Cascales, 
Tablas  poeticas  (Mure. :  1617;  new  edition,  containing  Cascales' 
Poetics  of  Horace  by  Franc.  Cerda  y  Rico.  Mad.  :  1779); 
Fed.  Soto  de  Roxas,  Discurso  sobra  la  poetica  (in  his  poem 
Desengano  de  Amor  en  Rimas.  Mad.  :  1623);  Al.  Ordonez, 
translation  and  text  of  Aristotle's  Poetics  (Mad.  :  1626;  new 
ed.  by  Cas.  Florez,  with  the  notes  of  Heinsius  and  Batteux. 
Mad.:  1778);  Diego  de  Colmenares,  Censura  de  Lope  da 
Vega  Carpio,  o  discurso  de  la  nueva  poesia,  con  una  respuesta, 
(1630);  Jos.  Ant.  Gonzalez  de  Salas,  Nueva  idea  de  la  Tragedia 
antigua,  o  ilustracion  ultima  al  libro  singular  de  poetica  de 
Aristotiles  prima  parte  ;  Tragedia  practica  y  observacion,  que 
deben  preceder  a  la  Tragedia  Espanola  intitul.  las  Troyanas, 
parte  seg.  (Mad.  :  1633  ;  new  ed.  by  Cerdo  y  Rico.  2  vols. 
Mad.:  1778);  Jos.  Pellicer.de  Salas  de  Tovar,  Idea  de  la 
Comedia  de  Castilla  (Mad.  :  1639)  '•>  Diego  Vich,  Breve  dis- 
curso de  las  Comedias  y  de  su  representacion  (Valenc. :  1650); 
Ignacio  de  Luzan  Claramunt  de  Suelves  y  Guerra,  La  Poetica, 
o  reglas  de  la  poesia  en  general  y  de  sus  principales  especies 
(Zarag.  :  1737  ;  new  ed.  enlarged  by  Eug.  Llaguno.  2  vols. 
Mad.:  1779);  Ant.  Nasarre  y  Ferriz,  Dissertacion,  o  prologo 
sobre  las  Comedias  de  Espana  (before  the  Comedias  di  Mig. 
de  Cervantes  Saavedra.  2  vols.  Mad.  :  1749).  For  some  of 
the  later  authorities,  see  below,  §  24,  B  9.  Also  for  references 
to  Portuguese  versification. 


450  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§21. 

6.  For  the  poetics  of  NORTHERN  EUROPEAN  LITERATURES, 
see  brief  notice  in  §  24,  B  11-13. 

7.  For  some  references  on  poetics  in  the  ORIENT,  see  §  24, 
B  14-20. 


CHAPTER   VII. 

THE  PRINCIPLES   OF  VERSIFICATION. 


§  22.      STATEMENT  OF  PROBLEMS;   ANALYSIS. 

THE  student  will  find  it  necessary  at  the  outset  to  determine 
the  relation  between  'primary'  and  'secondary'  rhythm, — 
or,  to  use  the  more  common  parlance,  between  rhythm  and 
metre,  —  and  to  discover  what  common  basis,  if  any,  rhythm 
and  metre  have. 

/.  He  should  then  proceed  to  the  consideration  of  Rhythm 
as  inherent,  or  manifest,  in 

A.  THOUGHT.  —  See  Dewey,  Baldwin,  Sully,  and  other  writers 
on  the  psychology  of  aesthetics,  pp.  166,  167,  above. 

B.  NATURE.  —  See,  for  instance,  Spencer's  First  Principles, 
pp.  256,  257;  John  Fiske's  Cosmic  Philosophy,  vol.  I,  pp.  297- 
314;  Helmholtz's  Sensations  of  Tone  ;  Ch.  Henry's  Rapporteur 
esthe'tique  ;  Lanier's  Science  of  Verse,  and  the  references  on 
pp.  138,  139,  above. 

C.  ART  (exclusive  of  music  and  literature).  —  See  Hegel's 
Aesthetik  (or  Kedney's  exposition,  Hastie's,  Bosanquet's,  Bry- 
ant's translations),  and  §§  7-9  above. 

D.  Music.  —  See  Lanier  in  his  Science  of  Verse,  Ruskin  in 
his  Prosody,  Gurney  in  his  Power  of  Sound,  Schmidt  in  his 
Introduction  to  Rhythmic  and  Metric,  for  various  theories  of 
the  relation  between  musical  and  poetical  rhythm.     More  spe- 

45' 


452  LITER AR  Y  CRITICISM.  [§  22. 

cial  reference  on  rhythm  in  music  may  be  made  to  physiological 
treatises  such  as  Helmholtz's  Sensations  of  Tone,  or  to  aesthetic 
theory  as  elaborated  by  Weber,  Schubart,  Hauptmann,  Bahr, 
et  aL,  for  whom  see  Gayley  and  Scott's  Guide  to  the  Literature 
of  Aesthetics,  pp.  70-72. 

E.  LANGUAGE.  —  See  Lanier  and  Poe  for  the  basis  of  speech- 
rhythm.  For  more  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject,  see 
references  as  given  in  §  23  to  Ellis  (Quantitative  Pronunciation 
of  Latin),  Guest,  Schmidt,  Mayor,  Abbott  and  Seeley,  West- 
phal,  Gurney,  Schipper,  and  others.  For  the  rhythm  of  prose, 
see  §§  25-27. 

//.  The  field  is  now  clear  for  the  consideration  of  Metre, 
or  Secondary  Rhythm.  —  The  student  is  confronted,  first,  with 
numerous  conflicting  definitions  of  the  well-known  terms  :  foot, 
section,  pause,  caesura,  etc.  As  to  the  kinds  of  feet,  classical 
and  modern,  he  may  with  profit  consult  Abbott  and  Seeley, 
Gummere,  Schmidt,  Ruskin,  Lanier,  Poe  ;  as  to  ratios  within 
the  foot,  Hadley,  Schmidt,  and  Gildersleeve.  On  the  section 
he  will  derive  enlightenment  from  Mayor  and  Ellis,  still  more 
from  Fleeming  Jenkin.  Let  him  approach  Guest  with  caution, 
lest  he  be  mystified.  In  regard  to  the  various  theories  of  the 
pause,  —  compensating  or  rhythmical,  —  the  end-pause,  run-on 
lines,  or  enjambement,  the  general  relation  of  verse  to  sentence, 
the  caesura,  etc.,  Thomas  Arnold,  Gummere,  Abbott  and 
Seeley,  Lanier,  and  Mayor  are  trustworthy  guides.  Attention 
may  next  be  turned  to  the  following  details : 

A.  THE  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  VERSE  AND  FOOT.  —  (i)  Quantity, 
—  ancient  and  modern.  —  It  will  be  wise  to  distinguish  at  once 
between  the  quantity  of  a  syllable  and  its  emphasis,  —  see 
Mayor ;  and  to  inquire  into  the  relative  value  of  syllables  in 
classical  and  in  modern  feet.  See  Ellis,  Gummere,  Guest, 
Sylvester,  Schipper,  Jenkin. 


//.]  METRE,    OR   SECONDARY  RHYTHM.  453 

(2)  Accent.  —  In  Guest  will  be  found  a  discussion  of   the 
verbal,  logical,  and  rhetorical  qualities  of  accent.     (See  Skeat's 
edition.)     On    the    hovering    and    the    wrenched    accent,    see 
Schmidt  and  Gummere  ;  also  Mayor,  Ellis,  Jenkin,  Symonds, 
and   Schipper.     Questions  touching  emphatic  and  unemphatic 
accents  will  rise  for  decision,  and  others  concerning  the  adjust- 
ment of  foot-sequence  and  section  in  modern  verse. 

(3)  Pitch,  —  Lanier,  Ellis,  Schipper,  Schmidt. 

(4)  Stress    in    word    and    in   metre,  —  Mayor,   Lecky,    and 
Ellis. 

(5)  Force  and  weight,  —  Mayor,  Ellis. 

(6)  Tone  and  color,  —  for  instance,  the  colors  of  vowels  and 
of  consonants  in  assonance,  alliteration,  and  onomatopoeia,  — 
see  Bacon,  Guest,   Lanier,   Ruskin,  Tolman,   Gummere,  M.-J. 
Guyau,  Schipper,  Stevenson  in  his  essay  on  style,  etc.     Symonds 
treats  poetically,  though  not  always  critically,  of  the  relation 
that  thought  and  emotion  bear  to  word-color. 

B.  THE  HISTORICAL  INQUIRY  INTO  METRE.  —  The  student  should 
study  first  the  genesis  of  metre,  its  evolution  and  differentiation 
in  any  one  literature  (Kawczynski,  Posnett,  Gummere,  Jaco- 
bowski)  ;  then  the  dependence  of  metrical  forms  upon  linguistic 
conditions  and  the  modifications  of  metre  that  have  attended 
the  development  of  a  language.  This  most  interesting  investi- 
gation will  lead  to  a  comparison  of  the  distinctive  metres  of 
various  nations  and  a  consequent  induction  may  establish  cer- 
tain affinities  between  national  metres  and  national  character- 
istics. Here  also  may  be  studied  the  connection  between 
special  moods  or  emotions  and  the  metres  most  frequently 
used  to  express  them.  As  a  source  and  at  the  same  time  an 
example  of  this  method,  consult  Kawczynski's  Essai  compara- 
tif  sur  1'origine  et  1'histoire  de  rhythme,  and  Wilh.  Meyer's 
Anfang  u.  Ursprung  d.  lateinischen  u.  griechischen  rhyth- 
mischen  Dichtung. 


454  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§22. 

C.  But  that  consideration  leads  one,  of  course,  to  the  thresh- 
old of  the  THEORETIC  INQUIRY.  Whence,  psychologically  con- 
sidered, does  the  demand  for  metre  spring?  From  the  desire  for 
regularity?  From  a  mechanical  impulse  to  stereotype  the  rela- 
tion between  unity  and  variety?  From  a  passion  for  'aesthetic 
economy '  ?  From  consideration  of  the  frailty  of  man's  mem- 
ory? And  the  delight  in  metre,  does  it  consist  in  the  con- 
sciousness of  technical  difficulty  overcome ;  or  in  the  sense  of 
expectancy  satisfied?  What  effect,  if  any,  upon  the  eye,  as 
well  as  upon,  the  ear  or  upon  the  imagination,  does  metrical 
arrangement  in  lines  produce?  Compare  with  this  the  metri- 
cal arrangement  of  bars,  and  consider  the  relation  of  metre 
to  music. 

///.  The  Kinds  of  Metre.  —  Mayor,  Schipper,  Abbott  and 
Seeley,  and  Schmidt  provide  the  material  necessary  for  a  gen- 
eral introduction.  Questions  concerning  metrical  license,  extra 
syllables,  anacrusis,  the  'catch,'  truncated  metres,  'metrical 
metamorphoses,'  merit  especial  attention. 

A.  Selected  references  for  the  study  of  CLASSICAL  METRE 
will  be  found  in  §  23  below  ;  courses  of  reading  for  more  exhaust- 
ive investigation  are  indicated  in  §  24.     The  beginner  cannot 
choose  a  better  guide  than  the  Rhythmic  and  Metric  of  J.  H. 
H.  Schmidt  (trans,    by  J.    Williams    White).     The    advanced 
student  is  referred  especially  to  Schmidt's  Kunstformen  d.  gr. 
Poesie,  and  to  Rossbach  and  Westphal.     (See  §  23.) 

B.  Concerning  MODERN  METRES,  —  especially  those  used  in 
Cnglish,  —  Guest,  Schipper,  Mayor,  Abbott  and  Seeley,  Lanier, 
Gummere,  Hood,  and  Goold  Brown  may  for  most  aspects  of 
the  study  be  consulted.     As  to  French,  German,  Italian,  and 
other  modern  European  systems  of  versification,  see  §  24. 

Of  strictly  modern  forms  none  deserves  attention  more  than 
English  Blank  Verse,  in  its  history  and  its  theory.  Mayor, 


///.]  THE  KINDS  OF  METRE.  455 

Schipper,  Guest,  and  Masson  present  the  various  difficulties 
attendant  upon  the  determination  of  the  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  this  form.  They  also  discuss,  as  do  Symonds,  Ellis, 
Abbott  and  Seeley,  Keightley,  and  a  host  of  others,  the  phenom- 
ena of  pause,  section,  elision,  slurring,  substituted  foot,  hendec- 
asyllable,  and  show  by  illustration  what  changing  tones  of 
quantity  and  accent  this  organ  of  many  stops  has  been  made 
to  produce.  The  qualities  of  English  blank  verse  cannot  be 
better  determined  than  by  an  induction  based  upon  the  usage 
of  Sackville  and  Norton,  Marlowe,  Shakespeare,  Fletcher,  Mil- 
ton, Wordsworth,  Landor,  Tennyson,  Browning,  and  Matthew 
Arnold.  The  following  are  a  few  of  the  questions  suggested  by 
this  study  :  What  adaptability  has  blank  verse  to  the  expres- 
sion of  varying  moods,  and  of  conception  more  or  less  profound? 
How  does  its  style  change  with  the  development  of  national 
thought  and  taste?  In  what  fashion  does  the  '  interweaving  '  of 
section  and  foot  reconcile  the  technique  of  ancient  and  of  mod- 
ern verse?  What  similarity  exists  between  the  pause  of  blank 
verse  and  the  caesura  of  hexameter?  What  special  adaptabil- 
ity has  blank  verse  as  a  vehicle  for  English  characteristic  and 
mental  attitude,  rather  than  for  those  of  other  nationalities? 
What,  by  comparison,  is  the  characteristic  of  French  prose 
mesurie,  and  of  Italian  versi  sciolti?  Is  blank  verse  better 
adapted  than  rhyme  to  such  a  poem  as  Goethe's  Faust  ?  Com- 
pare with  it  the  metrical  style  of  Marlowe's  Faustus. 

The  student  of  modern  metre  may  with  profit  undertake  an 
investigation  into  the  revival  in  modified  form  of  certain  classical 
metres,  such  as  the  Alcaic,  the  Sapphic  and  Adonic,  the  Hen- 
decasyllabic,  the  Hexameter,  and  the  Elegiac.  On  the  most 
important  experiment,  —  the  renovation  of  the  hexameter,  —  let 
him  consult  the  practice  of  Goethe,  Arthur  Hugh  Clough,  Kings- 
ley,  Longfellow,  and  others  as  suggested  in  Schipper  ;  and  the 
theories  of  Arnold,  Blackie,  Cayley,  and  others  mentioned  below, 
'  §  24,  B  5  (ft).  Munby's  '  Dorothy'  is  an  excellent  example  of 


456  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§22. 

English  elegiacs  not  often  noticed.  The  Elizabethans  and  other 
metrists  and  poets  down  to  the  present  time  have  variously 
illustrated  the  enormities,  as  well  as  the  possibilities,  of  English 
imitations  of  classic  verse. 

//.    Rhyme  ;  the  Refrain,  etc.  —  Under  this  division  of  the 
subject  the  following  questions  will  demand  consideration  : 

A.  HISTORICAL.  —  What  is  the  origin,  and  what  the  evolution, 
of  rhyme  ?     Why  does  it  prevail  in  modern  verse  and  not  in 
the  classics  ?     Did  it  obtain  in  ancient  literatures  outside  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin  ?     Does   it  obtain  in  all  modern  litera- 
tures ?     What  is  the  custom  in  the  Japanese,  the  Hebrew,  the 
Basque,   the    Lappish    and    Finnish,    and   other   eastern    and 
western  literatures  not  shaped  by  Graeco-Latin,  Teutonic,  or 
Romance  influence  ?     See  §  24,  Disraeli's  Amenities  of  Litera- 
ture, pp.  272,  273  ;  and,  as  in  §§  23,  24,  Schipper,  W.  Grimm, 
C.  F.  Meyer,  Gleditsch,  Blass. 

B.  THEORETICAL.  —  What    purpose   is   served   by   rhyme  ? 
What  are  its  advantages,  what  its  aesthetic  value,  and  how  are 
its  effects  limited  ?     Under  this  head  see,  in  addition  to  the 
more   exhaustive  treatises  cited   below,  §§  23,  24,   Schopen- 
hauer's World  as  Will  and  Idea,  vol.  Ill  The  Aesthetics  of 
Poetry  ;   Spencer's  Philosophy  of  Style  ;  G.  P.  Marsh's  Lec- 
tures on  the  English  Language,  pp.  xxiii-xxv,  and  Gummere. 
Is  the  best  effect  of  the  rhyme  produced  by  one  recurrence  of 
the  salient  sound  ?     Is  it  weakened  by  more  frequent  repeti- 
tion ?     What  of  the  recurrence   in   the  terza  rima,  the  ottara 
rima,  the  sonnet  ?     Does  the  virtue  of  rhyme  lie  in  the  expect- 
ancy on  the  part  of  the  hearer  which  it  arouses  and  allays? 
Does  it  lie  in  a  heightening  of  tone,  pitch,  quality  of  sound,  or 
in  the  element  of  duration  and  sequence  imparted  to  the  verses? 
Does  it  serve  to  emphasize  the  ideas  expressed  ?     What  is  the 
effect  of  '  deferred '  rhymes  ?     See  Gottschall's  Poetik ;    Blass, 


F.j  THE  STROPHE.  457 

p.  210.  On  the  effect  of  false  rhymes,  eye-rhymes,  'allowable ' 
rhymes,  and  the  like,  consult  the  entertaining  article  An  Inquiry 
as  to  Rhyme,  by  Brander  Matthews,  in  The  Bookman,  Septem- 
ber, 1898. 

C.  THE  CONNECTION  BETWEEN  THE  ESSENCE  AND  STRUCTURE  OF 
ANY  GIVEN  TONGUE  AND  THE  EXTENT  TO  WHICH  IT  AVAILS  ITSELF 
OF  RHYME.  —  See  Marsh,  Disraeli,  Mac-Carthy's  Translation  of 
Calderon  (Introd.),  and  others,  as  below,  §  24. 

Z>.  THE  ELEMENTS  AND  THE  KINDS  OF  RHYME.  —  Distinguish 
between  beginning,  middle,  and  end  rhymes, — or  alliteration, 
assonance,  and  rhyme  in  the  modern  English  sense  of  the 
term.  In  what  languages  is  alliteration  availed  of  ?  what  are 
the  respective  merits  of  obvious  and  concealed  alliteration  ? 
examples  ?  Discuss  the  manner  of  middle  rhyme  in  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  ;  of  tautophony  in  French.  See  Blass  (p.  209), 
Marsh,  Gummere,  Abbott  and  Seeley,  Skeat,  Vetter  (Zum  Mus- 
pilli),  Bellanger,  Mac-Carthy,  Gramont,  Ticknor. 

E.   THE  HISTORY,  PHILOSOPHY,  AND  LAWS  OF  THE  REFRAIN.  — 

Consult  works  on  modern  fixed  forms  of  verse,  as  in  §  24 ;  and 
see  R.  M.  Meyer,  Zeitschrift  f.  vergl.  Litteraturgesch.  i  :  34-47 
Ueber  den  Refrain. 

/.  The  Strophe.  —  Under  this  head  the  student  might  con- 
sider, first,  forms  distinctively  English  ;  secondly,  forms  derived 
from  foreign  literatures  ;  thirdly,  foreign  forms  not  domesti- 
cated in  English.  For  English  forms  he  will  find  Hood, 
Schipper,  and  Abbott  and  Seeley  a  helpful  introduction.  Of 
'derived'  forms  the  most  important  are  the  ode,  the  sonnet, 
and  the  lately  revived  French  forms  of  verse,  the  rondeau, 
ballade,  villanelle,  etc.  To  the  nature,  the  objects,  and  the 
history  of  the  sonnet,  he  will  find  Sharp's  Sonnets  of  the  Cen- 
tury an  especially  good  introduction  ;  but  a  bibliography  of 


458  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§22. 

the  subject  is  indicated,  §  24.  The  following  questions  may 
point  out  the  line  of  examination  :  Of  what  kind  of  burden  is 
the  sonnet  the  best  vehicle  ?  What  are  the  technical  condi- 
tions of  excellence?  What  is  the  historical  connection  with 
the  Greek  epigram,  or  with  the  stornello  ?  What  forms  has  it 
assumed  in  the  hands  of  Guittone,  Petrarch,  Dante,  Tasso, 
Camoens,  Bellay,  and  the  English  poets  from  Wyatt  to  Mrs. 
Browning  and  Rossetti  ? 

On  French  forms  of  verse,  see  references,  §  24. 

In  general  should  be  considered  the  evolution  of  stanzaic 
and  fixed  forms  of  verse,  national  preferences  in  fixed  forms, 
and  the  comparative  excellence  of  fixed  and  free  forms.  See 
Kawczynski  and  Gottschall. 

//.    The  History  of  Metre  in  Any  One  Literature. 

VII.  The  Study  of  Comparative  Versification. — These  sub- 
jects should  be  attempted  only  after  extensive  special  research. 
See  T.  H.  Key,  A  Partial  Attempt  to  Reconcile  the  Laws  of 
Latin  Rhythm  with  those  of  Modern  Languages  (Trans.  Eng. 
Philol.  Soc.,  1868-69,  pp.  311-351);  Harbois  de  Jubainville, 
Romania,  8  :  145  Des  rapports  de  la  versification  du  vieil 
irlandais  avec  la  versification  romane ;  and  a  similar  title  in 
Romania,  9:177.  Other  references  will  be  found  in  §24. 
Metric  as  a  comparative  study  is  still  in  its  infancy. 

////.  Metric  from  the  Phonetic  Point  of  View  is  also  a  com- 
paratively unworked  mine.  An  abundance  of  raw  material  will 
be  found  in  Sweet's  History  of  English  Sounds,  Ellis's  various 
writings  on  phonetics,  and  Siever's  Grundziige  der  Phonetik. 
See  especially  Lecky's  paper  in  Proc.  of  the  Eng.  Philol.  Soc. 
for  Dec.  19,  1884,  on  the  Phonetic  Theory  of  English  Prosody. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  459 


§  23.   REFERENCES. 

ABBOTT,  E.  A.,  and  SEELEV,  J.  R.     English  Lessons  for  Eng- 
lish People.     Boston  :   1880. 

ABBOTT,  E.  A.     Shakespearian  Grammar. 

In  English  Lessons,  Part  III,  on  Metre,  is  clearly  and  inter- 
estingly written.  §§  91—151  should  be  studied.  In  treating 
of  Blank  Verse  the  author  (Dr.  Abbott)  clings  somewhat  too 
tenaciously  to  traditional  prejudice,  but  attempts  to  justify  his 
rules  by  induction.  Taking  the  foot  and  the  accent  as  the 
bases  of  metre,  he  draws  a  distinction  between  word-accent  and 
metrical  accent.  But  does  an  examination  of  blank  verse  con- 
firm his  conclusions?  While  emphasizing  metrical  accent,  does 
he  not  distort  the  verbal  accent,  lay  abnormal  stress  upon 
unemphatic  monosyllables,  or  split  them  inexcusably  in  two, 
in  order  to  avoid  trochees,  dactyls,  anapaests,  spondees,  and 
pyrrhics  that  may  not  conform  to  his  theory  ?  Is  it  not  with  a 
similar  bias  that  he  sanctions  (§  114)  slurred  syllables  ?  Is  he 
justified  in  ruling  out  (§  101)  the  'hovering'  accent,  by  so 
many  deemed  a  valuable  mediator  between  the  emphasis  of 
verse  and  that  of  prose  ?  In  §  138,  under  the  License  of 
Trochee,  he  would  do  well  to  recognize  the  '  double  trochee  ' 
in  any  part  of  the  line,  or  else  the  monosyllabic  foot  with  com- 
pensating dactyl.  The  sections  115-122  on  the  Pause,  based 
upon  interesting  inductions  from  Pope,  Dryden,  Shakespeare, 
etc.,  will  be  still  more  useful  to  the  student  if  he  will  compare 
with  Dr.  Abbott's  results  those  of  Professor  Mayor,  English 
Metre,  pp.  135—196.  For  an  admirable  review  of  Abbott's 
'rules'  (English  Lessons,  §  98),  see  Mayor,  chap.  III. 

With  the  English  Lessons  should  be  studied  Abbott's  Shakes- 
pearian Grammar,  §§  452-515,  especially  §  453  The  'Pause- 
Accent  ';  §§  454-458  on  '  Pause-Extra  '  Syllables  and  Monosyl- 


460  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

lables  ;    §  459   et  seq.   on   Contractions;   §  477   et  seq.  on   the 
Lengthening  of  Words,  and  §  513  on  the  '  Amphibious '  Section. 

ARISTOTLE.     Poetics  (Wharton's  trans.). 
Chap.  1 :  4. 

ARNOLD,  M.     Three  Lectures  on  Translating  Homer.     Lond. : 
1861. 

ARNOLD,  M.     Last   Words  on    Translating    Homer.     Lond.: 

1862. 

After  considering,  in  the  first  and  second  lectures  on  Trans- 
lating Homer,  the  inadequacy  to  that  end  of  ballad-verse, 
rhymed  verse  in  general,  and  of  slow,  artificial,  obscure,  or 
ignoble  style,  Arnold  passes  (p.  67)  to  the  discussion  of  the 
measures  best  suited  to  Epic  composition.  These  are  the 
heroic,  the  blank  verse,  and  the  hexameter.  The  heroic,  as 
rhyming,  is  eliminated  from  the  consideration.  In  Lecture  3 
blank  verse  likewise,  after  a  careful  estimate,  is  deemed  unfit 
for  the  needs  of  Homeric  translation.  Hexameter  (p.  76  et 
seq.)  is  recommetided.  As  to  the  difficulty  of  naturalizing 
the  hexameter,  Arnold's  Solvitur  ambulando  is  comforting,  but 
scarcely  conclusive.  The  Last  Words  are  devoted  to  a  "  sweet 
and  illuminated  "  excoriation  of  Professor  Newman  ;  but  with 
page  36  the  discussion  of  hexameter  is  again  resumed.  Useful 
information  is  imparted  concerning  the  nature  of  the  caesura, 
the  pause,  accent,  quantity. 

ARNOLD,  THOMAS.     Manual  of  English   Literature.     Boston  : 
1889.     Appendix  on  English  Metres. 

AUBERTIN,   CH.     La  versification   franchise  et  ses  nouveaux 

thdoriciens.     Paris :   1898. 
A  good  introduction  to  recent  theories. 

BANVILLE,   T.   DE.     Petit  traitd  de   poe'sie  franchise.     Paris  : 
1881. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  461 

BARHAM,  THOS.  FOSTER.  Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc.,  1860-61, 
p.  45  On  Metrical  Time,  or  the  Rhythm  of  Verse,  Ancient 
and  Modern. 

BECQ  DE  FOUQUIERES.      Traite  ge'ne'ral  de  versification  fran- 

gaise.     Paris  :   1879. 

This  book,  and  that  of  De  Banville  cited  above,  may  be 
unhesitatingly  recommended. 

BENLOEW,  L.     Precis  d'une  theorie  des  rhythmes.     Paris  and 

Leipz.  :   1862-63. 

Part  I  treats  of  French  and  Latin  metres  ;  Part  II  of  Greek 
metres. 

BINET,  A.  Introduction  a  la  psychologic  experimentale. 
Paris  :  1894. 

BIRT,  TH.  Ad  historiam  hexametri  latini  symbola.  Bonn : 
1877. 

BLASS,  F.  Hermeneutik  und  Kritik.  (In  Iwan  Miiller's  Hand- 
buch  der  Klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft.  Bd.  I.  Nord- 
lingen:  1886.) 

Pt.  I,  pp.  206-209  Technik  d.  Zusammenfiigung  d.  Worte ;  pt.  II, 
pp.  209,  210  Figuren  d.  Gleichklangs  u.  d.  Wiederholung  ;  pp. 
210-212  Alliteration  u.  Reim;  pp.  212,  213  Melodic  u.  Accent; 
pp.  213-215  Versmass  d.  Poesie  ;  pp.  222-225  Die  Uebersetz- 
ungen. 

Of  exceeding  value  to  the  metrist.  Intended  as  an  introduc- 
tion to  classical  antiquities. 

BOHM,  H-     Zur  deutschen  Metrik.     (Progr.)     Bed. :   1890. 

The  author  maintains  that  the  trochee  and  the  amphibrach 
are  the  principal  feet  in  German  poetry.  Iambs,  he  thinks, 
can  always  be  read  as  trochees. 

BOLTON,  T.  L.     Am.  Jour.  Psychology,  6  :  2  Rhythm. 


462  LITERARY  CRITICISM  [§23. 

BORINSKI,  K.     Deutsche  Poetik.     Stuttgart:   1895. 

An  extremely  useful  little  book,  supplying  a  good  bibliog- 
raphy, and  handling  the  subject  in  accordance  with  modern 
scientific  method.  Metric  is  treated  in  Part  III,  pp.  50-92. 

BORINSKY,  F.     Das  Enjambement.    (Studien  zur  Literaturgesch. 
M.  Bernays  gewidmet.     Hamb.  und  Leipz.  :   1893.) 

BOUVY,  P.     Poetes  et  me'lodes.     Paris  :   1886. 
BREWER,  R.  F.     Orthometry.     N.  Y.  :   1893. 

Pp.  827-903  Versification. 

A  large  and  pretentious  but  crude  work  on  versification  and 
the  technique  of  poetry. 

BRIDGES,  ROBERT.     Milton's  Prosody.     Oxford:   1890. 

This  is  "  an  examination  of  the  rules  of  the  blank  verse  in 
Milton's  later  poems,  with  an  account  of  the  versification  of 
Samson  Agonistes."  It  is  one  of  the  best  studies  of  blank 
verse  in  English,  written  by  one  who  has  the  qualifications  of  a 
poet  as  well  as  a  critic.  For  a  review,  see  Athenaeum,  No. 
3465. 
BROWN,  GOOLD.  Grammar  of  English  Grammars.  N.  Y.  : 


BROWNE,  W.  H.     Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  4  :  97    Certain  Considera- 

tions Touching  the  Structure  of  English  Verse. 
The    writer    recognizes    but   three   fundamental   genera   or 
'patterns'  of  accentual  verse-structure:  (i)  one  strong  sylla- 
ble to  one  weak  ;  (2)  one  strong  to  two  weak;  (3)  one  strong 
to  three  weak. 

BRUCKE,  ERNST.     Die   physiologischen    Grundlagen  der  neu- 

hochdeutschen  Verskunst.     Vienna:   1871. 
See  Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc.,  1875-76,  p.  469,  for  description 
of  Briicke's  method,  which  was  to  utter  the  syllables,    '  pap,' 
'bim,'  'bam,'  while  a  wooden  lever  rested  on  his  lower  lip. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  463 

CARRIERS,   M.     Das    Wesen    und   die    Formen    der    Poesie. 

Leipz.  :   1834. 

A  thoughtful  and  well-arranged  discussion  of  the  historical 
and  aesthetic  bases  of  poetic  theory.  The  distinctions  between 
literary  types  are  not  far  different  from  Hegel's,  but  they  are 
clearly  presented,  and  with  a  wealth  of  illustration. 

CAYLEY,  C.  B.     Trans.  Eng.  PhiloL  Soc.,  1867,  p.  43  Pedigree 
of  English  Heroic  Verse. 

CAYLEY,    C.    B.      2'rans,   Eng.    PhiloL    Sot.,    1862-63,    p.    67 
Remarks  on   English  Hexameters. 

CHAIGNET,  A.-£d.     Essai  de  me'trique  grecque.     Paris  :   1887. 
CORSON,  HIRAM.     A  Primer  of  English  Verse.     Boston  :  1893. 
The  treatise   illustrates  sympathetically  and  forcefully  the 
principle  of  inherent  form. 

Due,  LUCIEN.     £tude  raisonne'e  de  la  versification  franchise. 
Paris  :   1889. 

DUHR,  A.     Ueber  Metrik  und  Rhythmik.     Friedland  i.  M.  : 

1885.     (Prog.) 

A  resume  of  the  contrasting  phases  of  the  development  of 
accent  and  quantity  in  verse  displayed  by  the  classical  languages 
on  the  one  hand  and  by  the  modern  on  the  other.  The  disser- 
tation furnishes  a  rapid  survey  of  Greek  and  Latin  metric  and 
metrists. 

EICHTAL,  E.  d'.     Du  rhythme  dans  la  versification  franchise. 

Paris :  1892. 

Clear,  simple,  and  trustworthy. 

ELLIS,  A.  J.     Essentials  of  Phonetics.     Lond. :   1848. 
ELLIS,  A.  J.     Early  English  Pronunciation.      1869. 

ELLIS,  A.  J.     Trans.  Eng.  PhiloL  Soc.,  1873-74,  p.  113  On  the 
Physical  Constituents  of  Accent  and  Emphasis. 


464  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

ELLIS,  A.  J.     Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc.,    1875-76,  p.  435   Re- 
marks on  Professor  Mayor's  Two  Papers  on  Rhythm. 

ELLIS,  A.  J.     The  Quantitative  Pronunciation  of  Latin.    Lond.  : 
1874. 

On  accent,  quantity,  verse,  and  prose  rhythm,  passim. 

In  his  Essentials  of  Phonetics  (1848)  Ellis  first  laid  down 
his  laws  of  English  heroic  verse.  His  method  was  inductive, 
and  his  conclusion  was,  in  general,  that  the  normal  form  of  iam- 
bic pentameter  is  rarely  to  be  found,  that  the  number  of  syllables 
is  frequently  greater  than  ten,  while  the  number  of  accents  is 
generally  less  than  five.  In  his  Early  English  Pronunciation, 
pt.  I.  pp.  333-335,  he  pointed  out  the  difference  between  Chau- 
cerian and  modern  rhythms,  and  laid  down  rules  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  stress  in  modern  pentameter.  In  the  article  in 
Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc.,  1873-74,  on  Accent  and  Emphasis, 
he  pursued  still  further  his  inductive  inquiry,  and  in  the  article 
of  June,  1876,  Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc.,  he  elaborated  a  nomen- 
clature for  degrees  of  force,  length,  pitch,  weight,  and  silence. 
This  system  distinguishes  forty-five  gradations  of  stress,  ready 
to  the  caprice  of  the  poet,  the  delight  of  the  metrist,  and  the 
confusion  of  the  profane  vulgar.  Ellis's  researches  (barring  the 
over-minuteness  of  the  system  that  they  have  led  him  to  elab- 
orate) are  characterized  by  common  sense.  But  do  they  throw 
much  light  upon  the  palpable  variations  of  intensity  within  the 
foot,  or  upon  the  limits  of  metrical  substitution  ?  Mayor  (Eng- 
lish Metre)  criticises  the  value  of  Ellis's  'principle  of  weight'; 
and  with  some  justice,  for  the  principle  must  remain  at  the 
best  "a  very  complex  phenomenon."  Shuddering  at  the  Teu- 
tonic analysis  elaborated  by  Ellis,  Mayor  discards  all  stress 
distinctions  save  those  of  force.  (See  Mayor,  English  Metre, 
pp.  57-74.)  Ellis  is  the  chief  representative  of  what  Mayor 
calls  the  natural,  or  a  posteriori  system.  For  a  review  of  Early 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  465 

English  Pronunciation,  see   Hadley  (Essays,  Philological  and 
Critical,  pp.  240-262). 

ELZE,  K.     Grundriss  der  englischen  Philologie,     Halle:   1889* 
Pp.  361-386  Metrik. 

EVERETT,  ERASJWS.    A  System  of  English  Versification.    1st.  Y. : 

1848. 

A  treatise  of  the  old-fashioned,  formal  kind,  with  "pieces," 
marked  "  original,"  by  the  author  of  the  treatise. 

GHIL,  RENE.     Le  traite  du  verbe.    Avec  avant-dire  de  Stephane 

Mallarme'.     Paris:   1886. 

Presents  in  a  curious  and  almost  unintelligible  jargon  the 
poetical  creed  of  the  French  decadents.  According  to  Ghil,  two 
main  principles  should  guide  in  the  making  of  verse  :  (i)  sym- 
bolism, or  the  use  of  words  to  convey  not  ideas  but  merely 
sensuous  impressions  ;  (2)  verbal  instrumentation  or  tone-color. 
The  author's  ideas  on  the  latter  point  are  a  crude  and  fanciful 
anticipation  of  late  psychological  research  into  the  phenomenon 
of  '  colored  hearing,'  so  called.  Ghil  associates  o,  oi,  with  red, 
ofi  with  black,  etc.  See  Am.  Jour.  Psych.  5:503,  504. 

GILDON,  C.     The  Complete  Art  of  Poetry.     2  vols.     Lond. : 

1718. 

Vol.  I  deals  in  six  parts  with  the  nature  and  use  of  poetry, 
the  use  of  rules,  the  manner  and  rules  of  epigrams,  pastorals, 
and  odes,  the  plot  and  characters  of  tragedy  and  comedy,  the 
rules  of  the  epic,  and  the  rules  of  English  numbers,  followed 
by  various  examples  from  Shakespeare.  Vol.  II  is  devoted  to 
an  anthology  of  poetry,  of  merely  antiquarian  interest.  Gildon 
stands  in  direct  opposition  to  Bysshe,  the  latter  making  the 
Art  of  Poetry  depend  upon  beauty  of  coloring,  the  former  on 
excellence  of  design. 

GILDON,  C.     The  Laws  of  Poetry.     Lond.:   1720. 


466  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

GLEDITSCH,  HUGO.  Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Romer.  (Vol. 
II,  pp.  677-852  of  Iwan  Miiller's  Handb.  der  Klassischen 
Altertumswissenschaft.  2.  Aufl.) 

GOTTSCHALL,  R.  Poetik :  Die  Dichtkunst  und  ihre  Technik. 
2  vols.  in  one.  Bresl.  :  1882. 

Vol.  I,  pp.  208-223  Vers  und  Reim  ;  pp.  223-249  Die  vorziiglich- 
sten  Versmasse ;  pp.  249-262  Altdeutsche,  an  tike,  orientalische 
Strophen.  See  §  24  for  further  note. 

GRAMONT,  F.  DE.     Le  vers  franc,ais.     Paris  :  1876. 

GRIMM,  W.  Zur  Geschichte  des  Reims.  Berlin:  1852.  (Ori- 
ginally published  in  Abhg.  d,  Akad.  zu  Berlin,  1851.) 

GUEST,  E.  A  History  of  English  Rhythms.  2  vols.  Lond. : 
1838. 

GUEST,  E.  A  History  of  English  Rhythms.  A  new  edition, 
by  W.  W.  Skeat.  Lond.  :  1882. 

In  Bk.  I  the  parts  most  necessary  to  be  read  are :  chap.  I,  on 
the  definition  of  rhythm,  on  quantity  and  accent ;  chap.  IV, 
on  accent,  pause  accents,  slurring,  and  emphasis;  chap.  V, 
on  quantity;  and  chap.  VII,  with  its  famous  dicta  on  sections 
and  pauses.  In  Bk.  II  the  account  of  the  origin  of  English 
rhythms  and  the  discussion  of  their  poetical  characteristics 
(chap.  I)  will  complete  what  is  needful  to  know  of  Guest's 
system.  Chaps.  II-VII  are  valuable  as  a  garner  of  apt  illus- 
trations, of  curiosities  in  verse,  and  metric  cruces,  but  Dr. 
Guest's  classification  of  the  last  is  wearisome.  In  vol.  II 
the  history  of  English  metres  is  learnedly  done,  but  is  by 
no  means  trustworthy.  It  is,  for  instance,  doubtful  whether 
he  understands  either  the  nature  or  the  function  of  Chaucer's 
heroics.  Milton  (p.  244)  is  scored  for  violating  the  Doc- 
tor's rule  about  'middle 'and  'final'  pauses.  "Versification," 
says  the  Doctor,  "  ceases  to  be  a  science  if  its  laws  may  be 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  467 

thus  lightly  broken !  "  The  special  insufficiencies  of  Guest's 
work  are  that  his  principle  of  the  section  and  his  laws  con- 
cerning pauses  are  drawn  from  the  meagre  material  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  poetry,  and  that  most,  if  not  all,  of  the  rules  that  he 
formulates  are  disregarded  by  the  greatest  English  poets.  The 
most  valuable  parts  of  his  work  are  Bk.  Ill,  on  Anglo-Saxon 
literature,  and  Bk.  IV,  on  various  kinds  of  stanzas  or  '  staves,' 
as  he  calls  them.  The  new  edition  of  Guest,  edited  by  W.  W. 
Skeat,  is  a  thorough  revision  of  the  original,  with  an  index  and 
some  notes. 

GUMMERE,  F.  B.     A  Handbook  of  Poetics.     Boston  :  1888. 

Pt.  Ill  of  this  work  is  an  admirable  short  treatise  on  Metric. 
The  work  of  Child,  Ellis,  Sweet,  and  of  the  Shakespearian 
verse-scholars,  as  well  as  of  Schipper,  ten  Brink,  and  West- 
phal,  has  been  carefully  studied  and  assimilated.  The  chap- 
ters on  Metres  of  English  Verse  (pp.  166-234)  evince  careful 
research  and  discrimination.  Gummere  does  not  follow  Guest 
in  assigning  aesthetic  influence  to  Anglo-Saxon  verse.  The 
sixth  chapter  (pp.  133-166)  will  give  the  student  an  adequate 
survey  of  the  leading  difficulties  as  to  rhythm,  accent,  quan- 
tity. It  is  probably  oversight  that  a  misconstruction  of  Hegel's 
statement  about  metre  is  allowed  to  stand  (pp.  i  and  133).  For 
Hegel's  language  see  §  20  above,  Hegel.  For  a  discussion  of 
the  principles  on  which  the  treatise  is  based,  see  the  articles  by 
the  author  and  Prof.  J.  M.  Hart  in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  vol.  I, 
pp.  17,  18,  35,  36,  83,  84,  102,  103.  Professor  Gummere  (p.  36) 
gives  the  following  outline  of  his  position  :  English  metres  are 
(i)  based  on  regular  time  intervals',  (2)  marked  off  and  deter- 
mined by  accent ;  (3)  regulated  but  not  determined  by  quan- 
tity (Schipper) ;  (4)  neither  determined  nor  regulated  by 
pitch;  (5)  influenced  by  pauses  and  slurring;  (6)  beautified 
by  tone-color ;  (7)  still  pervaded  to  a  large  extent  by  rhyme. 
The  test  of  the  individual  verse  is  its  movement. 


468  LITERARY  CRITICISM. 


GURNEY,  E.     The  Power  of  Sound.     Lond.:   1880. 

See,  also,  Gurney's  Tertium  Quid,  vol.  I,  pp.  191-251   The  Ap- 
preciation of  Poetry. 

This  work  is  a  valuable  as  well  as  a  delightful  contribution 
to  the  aesthetics  of  music.  From  the  point  of  view  of  metric 
it  is  of  much  importance.  Gurney  bases  his  conclusions  upon 
induction.  With  Ellis  and  Mayor  he  adopts  accent  (or  the 
noticed  regularity  of  stimuli^)  as  the  essential  of  metre,  and 
metre  as  the  fundamental  principle  of  verse.  He  holds 
(p.  429)  that  there  is  no  necessary  connection  between  the  ac- 
centuation and  the  duration  of  syllables,  and  would  consequently 
be  declared  "  time  deaf "  by  Professor  Sylvester.  Especially 
noticeable  is  the  assertion  that  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  the 
accented  syllable  from  occupying  the  smaller  portion  of  the 
space  between  ictus  and  ictus,  though  generally  the  long  sylla- 
ble is  that  which  bears  the  accent.  The  student  should  con- 
sider critically  the  value  of  p.  109  et  seq.  on  rhythm  and  the 
pleasure  arising  from  a  series  of  muscular  sensations,  and  of 
pp.  127-149  on  rhythm  (stimulation  at  fixed  degrees  of  time) 
and  pitch  (which  deals  with  differences  of  distance  and  direc- 
tion). Gurney  holds  (p.  361  et  seq.)  that  poetry  and  music 
are  not  differentiated  developments  of  a  common  germ,  but 
that  music  is  the  older  type.  On  poetry  as  a  representative 
art,  see  p.  393.  Chap.  XIX,  on  the  sound-element  in  verse, 
attempts  to  prove  that  metrical  rhythm  is  imposed  on,  not 
latent  in  speech,  and  that  verse  arises  from  the  regularity  of 
accents,  not  from  their  presence.  See  p.  428  for  the  marking 
off  of  lines  and  stanzas;  p.  430  et  seq.  for  deviations  from  the 
norm  in  metre,  and  for  distinction  between  the  "pause"  and 
the  "foot  of  silence."  Chap.  XX  is  on  song.  In  chap.  XXI 
Gurney  attacks  Spencer's  theory  concerning  the  derivation  of 
music  from  the  cadence  of  emotional  speech. 

GUVAU,  M.-J.     L'esthe'tique  contemporaine. 
Pp.  171-257  L'Avenir  et  les  lois  du  vers. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES,  469 

According  to  this  able  thinker  and  delightful  writer  the 
science  of  verse,  since  verse  is  at  the  same  time  a  system 
of  vocal  sounds  or  physiological  movements  and  a  system  of 
thoughts  or  emotions,  should  be  based  upon  the  two  sciences, 
physiology  and  psychology.  From  this  double  point  of  view 
the  author  discusses  the  following  topics :  Chap.  I,  Rhythm  of 
language  and  its  origin —  formation  of  modern  verse;  chap.  II, 
Romantic  theories  of  verse  —  office  of  the  caesura;  chap.  Ill, 
The  new  metres  —  the  hiatus ;  Chap.  IV,  La  rime  riche ; 
chap.  V,  Thought  and  verse. 

HADLEY,  J.     Essays,  Philological  and  Critical.     N.  Y. :   1873. 

Pp.  81-109  Greek  Rhythm  and  Metre. 

This  admirable  article  is  especially  a  resume  and  criticism  of 
the  conclusions  on  Greek  rhythm  and  metre  arrived  at  by 
Rossbach,  Westphal,  Weil,  Caesar,  and  Susemihl.  A  sketch 
is  given  of  the  more  important  ancient  writers  on  verse,  and 
elementary  facts  and  principles,  as  set  forth  in  their  systems, 
are  discussed.  The  elucidation  of  the  terms  "  arsis  "  and  "  thesis," 
to  the  original  significance  of  which  Hadley  reverts,  and  the 
rehearsal  of  the  doctrine  of  compound  feet  are  a  contribution 
to  the  science  of  ancient  verse  well  worthy  the  attention  of  the 
student. 

HELMHOLTZ,  H.  L.  F.  Sensations  of  Tone  as  a  Physiological 
Basis  for  a  Theory  of  Music.  Trans,  and  ed.  by  A.  J. 
Ellis.  Lond. :  1875. 

HELMHOLTZ,  H.  L.  F.  On  the  Physiological  Causes  of  Har- 
mony in  Music.  (In  Popular  Lectures  on  Scientific  Sub- 
jects. Trans,  by  E.  Atkinson.  Lond. :  1873.) 

HENRY,  CHARLES.     Rapporteur  esthetique.     Paris  :  1888. 

HOHLFELD,  A.  R.  Studies  in  French  Versification.  De- 
printed  from  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  vol.  VIII,  Nos.  i  and  5. 
Baltimore :  1893. 


470  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

HOLMES,  O.  W.  Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Jan.  7, 
1875  Physiology  of  Versification  and  the  Harmonies  of 
Organic  and  Animal  Life. 

HOOD,  TOM.  Practical  Guide  to  English  Versification.  3d 
edition.  With  an  appendix  on  versification ;  and  Bysshe's 
rules  for  making  English  verse.  Lond. :  1888. 

HOOD,  TOM.  The  same,  entitled  the  Rhymester,  edited  with 
additions  by  Arthur  Penn  [Brander  Matthews].  N.  Y. : 
1882. 

Of  Hood's  work  not  more  need  be  said  than  that  it  is  a 
practical  elementary  handbook.  It  treats  in  no  philosophic, 
but  in  lucid,  although  frequently  dogmatic  and  a  priori  style, 
of  classic  and  modern  principles  of  versification,  of  feet  and 
caesuras,  of  metre,  rhythm,  and  rhymes,  of  figures,  comic  verse, 
vers  de  societe,  and  of  song  writing.  The  author  aims  rather  at 
showing  the  versifier  the  '  how  '  than  the  '  why  '  of  versification. 
He  clings  to  classical  terminology  and  tries  (p.  25)  to  establish 
a  relation  between  accent  and  quantity.  For  a  light  and  gen- 
eral survey  of  versification  the  work  may  be  recommended  to 
the  beginner. 

Arthur  Penn's  Rhymester  adds  three  useful  chapters,  on  the 
Sonnet,  the  Rondeau,  Ballade,  and  other  Fixed  Forms  of  Verse, 
with  Ben  Jonson's  Fit  of  Rhyme  against  Rhyme. 

HUMBERT,  C.  Die  Gesetze  des  franzosischen  Verses.  Ein 
Versuch,  sie  aus  dem  Geiste  des  Volkes  zu  erklaren,  mit 
besonderer  Riicksicht  auf  den  Alexandriner  und  Moliere's 
Misanthrope.  Leipz.-.  1888. 

HUNT,  LEIGH.  What  is  Poetry  ?  (In  Selections  from  the  Eng- 
lish Poets.  N.  Y. :  1857.) 

Note  the  remarks  on  versification  which  succeed  the  discus- 
sion of  imagination  and  fancy. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  471 

JACOBOWSKI,  L.  Die  Anfange  der  Poesie.  Grundlegung  zu 
einer  realistischen  Entwickelungsgeschichte  der  Poesie. 
Dresden  :  1891. 

JENKIN,  FLEEMING.     Papers,  Literary,  Scientific,  etc.     Ed.  by 

S.  Colvin  and  J.  A.  Ewing.  Lond. :  1887. 
A  new  edition  of  Guest's  Rhythms  was  issued,  under  the  su- 
pervision of  the  Rev.  W.  W.  Skeat,  in  1883.  Three  admirable 
articles,  suggested  by  the  reprint  of  this  work,  appeared  in  the 
Saturday  Review  of  February  and  March,  1883,  and  are  pub- 
lished in  abridged  form  among  the  Papers,  Literary,  Scientific, 
etc.,  of  Fleeming  Jenkin,  vol.  I,  pp.  149-170.  Professor  Jenkin 
accepts  neither  the  ancient  method  of  scanning  English  verse 
nor  the  accentual  and  sectional  method  of  Guest,  Goold 
Brown,  and  others.  He  traces  in  English  metre  the  blending 
(p.  154)  of  two  independent  systems  of  rhythm,  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  the  classical  ;  and  he  elucidates  (pp.  155-170)  a 
method  of  verse-analysis  based  upon  the  combination  of  classic 
foot,  sectional  rhythm,  pause,  and  accent.  The  article  is  cor- 
dially commended  to  the  student. 

KAWCZINSKI,  MAX.     Essai  comparatif  sur  1'origine  et  1'histoire 

des  rhythmes.     Paris  :  1889. 

This  important  contribution  to  the  long  and  involved  discus- 
sion of  the  origin  of  Romance  versification  contains  also  by 
the  way  many  profound  and  original  remarks  upon  metrical 
questions  of  a  general  character.  Of  especial  interest  is  his 
view  that  modern  metres  are  inheritances  from  Greece,  not 
autochthonous,  in  their  origin.  Reviewed  by  F.  M,  Warren, 
Am.  Jour.  Philol.  40:  358-371. 

KLEINPAUL,  E.     Poetik.     8.  umg.  und   verm.  Aufl.     Leipz. : 

1879. 
A  methodical  and  fairly  scientific  introduction  to  the  subject. 


472  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

KLUGE,  F.  Zur  Geschichte  des  Reimes  im  Altgermanischen 
(in  Paul  und  Braune's  Beitrage,  vol.  IX,  p.  422). 

LA  GRASSERIE,  R.  DE.  fitudes  de  grammaire  comparee. 
Analyses  metriques  et  rhythmiques.  Vannes  :  1893. 

LA  GRASSERIE,  R.  DE.  £tude  de  rhythmique.  Essais  de 
me'trique  vedique  et  sanscrite.  Paris:  1893. 

LA  GRASSERIE,   R.  DE.     Le  museon,  10  :   299,  419,   589;   n: 

38,  191,  307,  389  Essai  de  rhythmique  comparee. 
Examines   in   succession  :  (i)  the  phonic  or  rhythmic  ele- 
ment;  (2)  the  psychic  element;  (3)  the  union  of  the  two  in 
the   morphology   of    verse,    forming   the   poetic   whole.     The 
author  holds  that  the  essence  of  poetry  is  creation. 

LA  GRASSERIE,  R.  DE.  Bulletin  histor.  et  philol.  du  comite  des 
trav&ux  hist,  et  scientifiques,  1893,  p.  181  De  la  strophe 
et  du  poeme  dans  la  versification  fran9aise,  specialement 
en  vieux  franc.ais. 

According  to  the  ingenious  theory  of  La  Grasserie  the  strophe 
arose  in  a  somewhat  mechanical  way  through  the  efforts  of  ver- 
sifiers to  do  away  with  the  monorhyme  of  the  epic  and  to  give 
to  this  type  of  poetry  a  lyric  movement. 

LANIER,  S.     The  Science  of  English  Verse.     N.  Y. :  1880. 

The  student  will  thank  Lanier  for  the  suggestive  history  of 
English  metric  supplied  by  the  preface.  He  will  find,  on  turn- 
ing to  p.  98,  Experimental  Test  of  Accent,  that  Lanier,  with 
Sylvester  and  Poe,  posits  time-relation  as  the  basis  of  modern 
rhythms.  In  this  respect,  therefore,  his  system  is  opposed  to 
those  of  Ellis,  Abbott,  Hale,  and  Mayor.  He  attributes  the 
theory  of  the  accentualists  to  their  confusion  of  '  primary 
rhythm  '  (quantity)  with  '  secondary  rhythm  '  (the  arrangement 
of  pitch  and  stress).  From  such  premises  naturally  follow 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  473 

Lanier's  elaborate  classification  of  rhythms  and  the  musical 
notation  of  them.  The  elements  — •  duration,  pitch,  and  tone- 
color  —  suggest  the  order  of  treatment  adopted :  rhythms, 
tunes,  and  colors  of  verse. 

Under  rhythms,  pp.  62—65,  98-109,  119,  120,  discriminate 
between  quantity  and  stress,  and  between  the  various  kinds  of 
stress.  Pp.  89-94,  182-224  treat  of  blank  verse,  'run-on' 
lines,  the  '  pause,'  the  '  rest,'  etc.  The  main  division  of  rhythm 
into  its  so-called  six  orders  (p.  95)  is  lucid  and  ingenious ;  but 
as  dependent  upon  the  time-theory  of  verse,  is  it  scientific  or 
trustworthy?  The  chapter  on  the  tunes  of  English  verse  should 
be  compared  with  the  scientific  treatises  of  Weil  (Order  of 
Words),  V.  Egget  (La  parole  interieure),  and  Gurney.  Part  III, 
which  takes  up  without  discrimination  what  Sylvester  would  call 
the  chromatic  and  synectic  of  verse  (color,  vowel-distribution, 
rhyme,  etc.),  is  valuable.  In  chap.  XIII  Lanier  elaborates 
Sylvester's  Phonetic  Syzygy,  first  admiring  the  aptness  of  the 
term.  May  we  not  suggest  the  superior  simplicity  of  some 
such  nomenclature  as  '  vowel  and  consonant  coordination,'  or 
'vocal  sequences '? 

LECKY,  J.     Proc.  Eng.  PhiloL  Sac.,  Dec.  19,  1884  (Monthly 
Abstract)  Phonetic  Theory  of  English  Prosody. 

Abstract  of  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  James  Lecky,  in  which  is 
proposed  a  phonetic  notation  for  the  scansion  of  English  verse. 
Provision  is  made  for^ndicating  three  degrees  of  stress  and  five 
of  length.  By  beginning  each  foot  with  a  strong  syllable,  as 
proposed  by  Ellis  and  Pierson,  Mr.  Lecky  identifies  the  foot 
with  the  "  stress-group." 

LE  GOFFIC,  C.,  and  THIEULIN,  E.     Nouveau  traite  de  versifi- 
cation franchise.     Paris :   1890. 

For  higher  classes  in  the  lycees  and  normal  schools.  Treats 
of  origins,  value  of  syllables,  elision,  hiatus,  rhyme,  caesura,  en- 


474  LITERARY  CRITICISM. 


jambement,  alliteration,  assonance,  strophes,  and  fixed  forms. 
A  good  introduction. 

LUBARSCH,  E.  O.  Franzosische  Verslehre  mit  neuen  Ent- 
wickelungen  fur  d.  theoret.  Begriindung  d.  franzosischen 
Rhythmik.  Berlin:  1879. 

Pronounced  by  Korting  the  best  handbook  of  French  versi- 
fication. 

MASSON,  D.  Poetical  works  of  John  Milton.  3  vols.  Lond. : 
1874.  Vol.  I,  pp.  cvii-cxxxii  Essay  on  Versification. 

A  thorough  and  liberal  inductive  examination  into  Milton's 
blank  verse.  Masson  scouts  the  so-called  norm  of  blank  verse. 
"  Whatever  combinations  of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables," 
he  holds,  "  can  produce  a  blank  verse  which  shall  be  good  to 
the  ear,  is  not  a  matter  for  arithmetical  computation,  but  for 
experience."  He  approves  the  use  of  trochee,  spondee,  ana- 
paest, dactyl,  and  even  of  tribrach,  amphibrach,  and  antibac- 
chius.  Mayor's  criticism  (Eng.  Metre,  pp.  74-79)  shows  that 
by  the  recognition  of  elision  and  slurring  many  of  Masson's  tri- 
brachs,  amphibrachs,  etc.,  may  be  reduced  to  ordinary  English 
feet.  With  Masson's  views  Mayor  compares  those  of  Keightley 
(Life,  Opinions,  Writings  of  Milton),  who  also  belongs  to  the 
inductive  school.  (See  in  addition  Masson's  Essays,  Biograph- 
ical and  Critical,  pp.  447-475  Prose  and  Verse,  De  Quincey.) 

MAYOR,  J.  B.     Chapters  on  English  Metre.     Lond. :  1886. 

Professor  Mayor  pleads  for  a  scientific  treatment  of  English 
metre.  He  defends  the  principle  of  routine  scansion,  believes 
that,  whether  poets  have  respected  it  or  not,  there  are  scientific 
uses  to  which  it  must  be  put ;  and  as  to  the  classical  nomen- 
clature of  prosody,  does  not  see  any  advantage  in  giving  it  up. 
He  states  (p.  10)  the  more  important  questions  demanding  con- 
sideration, and  advances  to  a  consideration  of  the  best-known 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  475 

English  metrists.  In  chap.  II  he  attacks  Dr.  Guest's  system. 
He  objects  decidedly  to  the  assumption  that  our  verse  is  to  be 
judged  by  the  laws  of  Anglo-Saxon  metre  and  the  principle  of 
the  'section,'  and  esteems  Dr.  Guest's  approbation  of  a  poet  a 
dubious  compliment.  He  is  more  in  accord  (chap.  Ill)  with  the 
logical  a-priorism  of  Dr.  Abbott,  but,  in  chap.  VI,  especially 
applauds  the  a  posteriori  method  of  Mr.  Ellis.  Symonds,  who 
argues  for  an  aesthetic  disregard  of  scientific  scansion,  is  not 
commended.  The  more  original  and  constructive  part  of  Pro- 
fessor Mayor's  work  is  contained  in  chaps.  VI-XII.  The 
chapters  (pp.  81-123)  on  metrical  metamorphoses  and  substi- 
tutions cover  the  interesting  questions  of  truncated  lines, 
catches,  pauses,  mixed  metres,  allowable  conversions  of  feet, 
etc.  In  these  chapters  the  author's  judgments  are  remarkably 
clear  and  sound.  His  examination  of  the  metres  of  Marlowe, 
Surrey,  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Tennyson,  and  Browning  are  a 
genuine  contribution  to  the  science  of  the  subject.  All  in  all, 
this  is  perhaps  the  best  short  English  treatise  on  versifica- 
tion. Ellis's  remarks  on  Mayor's  Two  Papers  on  Rhythm  are 
to  be  found  in  Trans.  Eng.  PhiloL  Soc.,  1875-76,  pp.  435-449. 
"  Single  lines  cannot  be  scanned  by  themselves.  Rhythm 
must  be  taken  by  paragraphs." 

MEYER,  W.  Anfang  und  Ursprung  der  lateinischen  u.  griechi- 
schen  rythmischen  Dichtung.  (Abhandlg.  d.  phil.-hist. 
Classe  d.  bayerischen  Akademie  d.  Wissenschaften,  xvii,  ii.) 

MEYER,  W.  Numerous  articles  on  Versification,  especially  on 
the  origin  of  Romance  Versification.  (See  §  24  and,  in 
general,  Kawczynski,  chaps.  VII  and  VIII.) 

MINCKWITZ,  J.  Lehrbuch  der  deutschen  Verskunst.  3.  Aufl. 
Leipz. :  1854. 

While  this  handbook  deals  professedly  with  German  metric 
and  prosody,  it  covers,  in  a  manner  too  formal  indeed,  but 


476  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

scholarly,  a  large  part  of  the  field  common  to  modern  versifica- 
tion. According  to  Minckwitz,  syllables  in  German  prosody 
are  valued  in  terms  of  accent,  significance  of  thought,  and 
sound-relation  or  vowel-weight.  German  verse  has,  then,  short, 
long,  and  medium  syllables,  as  well  as  accent,  to  deal  with ; 
and  the  German  tongue  has,  in  so  far  as  comports  with  its 
nature,  united  the  claims  of  quantity  and  accent,  as  was  the 
case  in  Greek  and  Latin  verse. 

NEWMAN,    F.   W.     Miscellanies.     Lond. :    1869.     Pp.  65-145 

Four  Lectures  on  Poetry. 

Of  these  lectures,  the  second  (pp.  32-103),  on  Forms  of  Poetry, 
opens  with  a  distinction  between  the  modern  oratorical  metre, 
which  depends  on  the  prose  accent,  and  the  ancient  musical 
metre,  which  depended  on  '  equable  times.'  There  is  also  a 
remark  to  the  effect  that  certain  words  may  be  accentually 
of  one  metre  and  quantitatively  of  another  —  e.g.  female,  accen- 
tually a  trochee,  quantitatively  a  spondee.  This  is  probably 
(p.  83)  the  passage  which  Professor  Sylvester,  Laws  of  Verse, 
p.  65,  misconstrues  into  an  assertion  of  the  abbreviating  effect 
of  the  accent,  and  elaborately  condemns. 

PARIS,  G.     Le  vers  frangais.     Paris:   1885. 

PARSONS,  JAMES  C.     English  Versification  for  the  Use  of  Stu- 
dents.    Boston:   1891. 

A  well-ordered,  respectable  compilation.  Hardly  to  be  called 
a  contribution  to  the  science. 

PAUL,   H.     Grundriss  der   germanischen    Philologie.     Strass- 

burg  :   1889. 

Students  who  desire  to  master  Germanic  versification,  and 
who  are  willing  to  give  to  the  subject  the  attention  it  requires, 
will  do  well  to  become  familiar  with  this  important  work.  The 
treatment  of  metres  occupies  pp.  861-1072,  and  is  from  the 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  477 

hands  of  four  eminent  specialists.  Pp.  861-898,  by  Sievers, 
are  taken  up  with  a  discussion  of  Old  German  metric.  At 
the  beginning  the  author  makes  an  interesting  comparison  of 
the  theories  of  Lachmann,  Schmeller,  Wackernagel,  and  him- 
self, regarding  alliterative  poetry.  The  general  structure  of  the 
normal  verse  in  Old  German,  as  well  as  of  the  '  Schwellvers,' 
is  set  forth  briefly  but  comprehensively.  A  second  division 
deals  with  old  northern  metres,  such  as  those  of  the  Edda,  the 
Skalds,  etc.;  a  third  with  Anglo-Saxon  metres,  and  a  fourth 
with  the  old  Saxon  metre,  that  is,  the  metre  of  the  Heliand. 
The  essay  closes  with  a  few  paragraphs  on  Old  High  German 
Metres.  The  chapter  by  Paul,  on  German  versification,  which 
follows  (pp.  898—993),  is  better  adapted  to  the  needs  of  the 
beginner.  The  author  first  defines  the  various  terms  used  in 
the  discussion,  such  as  quantity,  accent,  verse,  etc.,  then  passes 
(p.  903)  to  a  consideration  of  rhythm  in  general,  which  in  Ger- 
man he  finds  to  rest  upon  expiratory  accent  and  quantity.  In 
the  treatment  of  accent  Paul  recognizes  four  degrees  of  stress  : 
(i)  primary  accent,  (2)  strong  secondary  accent,  (3)  weak  sec- 
ondary accent,  (4)  no  accent.  A  certain  minimum  of  stress  is 
necessary  to  characterize  the  principal  accent ;  the  other  degrees 
have  a  relative  value  and  are  determined,  as  suggested  by  Moriz, 
by  the  neighboring  syllables.  Thus  a  syllable  is  unaccented 
when  its  stress  is  less  than  that  of  the  preceding  and  following 
syllable ;  it  has  the  strong  secondary  accent  when  (without 
being  primary)  it  (a)  rises  in  stress  above  the  preceding  and  is 
followed  either  by  a  weaker  stress  or  by  a  pause,  or  (£)  begins 
a  sentence ;  it  has  the  weak  secondary  accent  when  it  follows 
a  primary  accent  and  rises  in  point  of  stress  above  the  following 
syllable.  This  idea  is  applied  with  considerable  detail  (pp.  905- 
907),  after  which  comes  a  brief  discussion  of  quantity  (pp.  907- 
910).  In  the  following  sections  the  various  periods  of  German 
poetry  are  passed  in  review  with  reference  to  their  methods  of 
versification,  Paul's  treatment  of  the  Volkslied  (pp.  941-944) 


478  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

and  of  modern  verse  (Kunstdichtung,  pp.  947-962)  being  of 
especial  interest.  The  chapter  closes  with  sections  on  rhyme, 
assonance,  alliteration,  the  refrain,  and  kinds  of  verse  and 
strophe.  In  the  next  chapter  Karl  Luick  and  Schipper  write 
upon  English  metres,  the  first  treating  historically  of  native 
English  metres;  the  second,  of  the  introduction  of  foreign 
metres  into  English  verse. 

PELLISSIER,  GEORGES.      Essais   de   litterature  contemporaine. 
Paris :   1893. 

Le  vers  alexandrin  et  son  evolution  rhythmique. 

PIERSON,  P.     Metrique  naturelle  de  langage.    Avec  une  notice 
pre'liminaire  par  Gaston  Paris.     Paris  :   1884. 

PLATO.     Dialogues. 

For  Plato's  observations  on  rhythm  and  metre,  see  Symposium 
187,  Cratylus  424,  Republic  III,  400,  Philebus  17,  Laws  II, 
665,  Gorgias  502. 

POE,  EDGAR  ALLAN.     Works.     4  vols.     N.  Y.  :  1880.     Vol.  I, 

pp.  214-258  The  Rationale  of  Verse. 

A  virulent  but  virile  article.  The  poets  of  whom  Poe  hap- 
pened to  be  jealous,  the  scholiasts  of  antiquity,  and  the  "  Frog- 
pondians  "  of  his  own  day  come  in  for  the  abuse  of  a  peevish 
author.  But  the  theories  advanced  concerning  metre  (Poe 
does  not  here  treat  of  the  whole  range  of  rhythm  ;  not  at  all 
of  thought  in  poetry,  nor  of  expression  as  poetic)  deserve 
painstaking  attention  ;  they  were  new  to  many  of  Poe's  con- 
temporaries, and  they  are  in  many  particulars  sound.  His 
most  notable  assertions  are  that  with  spondee,  dactyl,  anapaest, 
iamb,  and  trochee,  all  modern  verse  may  be  scanned  ;  that  mod- 
ern feet  are  of  the  same  length;  that  the  accented  syllable  is 
long ;  that  the  basis  for  the  measure  is  time.  His  system  of 
scansion  by  units,  halves,  quarters,  etc.,  is  simple  and  gen- 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  479 

erally  sane ;  his  suggestion  of  '  run-on  '  feet,  stepping  from  one 
line  into  the  next,  may  be  new  to  the  student,  and  should  be 
considered.  Is  it  not  because  Poe  failed  to  give  its  full  value 
to  the  'rest,'  or  'silent  syllable,'  that  he  falls  into  difficulty 
with  his  monosyllabic  feet,  spondees,  so-called  bastard  trochees, 
bastard  iambs,  etc.  ?  For  the  opposing  view  of  the  value  of  the 
accented  syllable  see  F.  W.  Newman's  Second  Lecture  on 
Poetry  (Miscellanies,  p.  83).  Poe's  system  of  quantification 
(p.  246)  will  be  better  understood  if  instead  of  the  words  "ac- 
cented" and  "unaccented"  be  read  "noted"  and  "unnoted," 
or  "  designated  "  and  "undesignated."  His  criticism  (p.  223) 
of  Leigh  Hunt's  Principle  of  Variety  in  Uniformity  is  a  piece 
of  invidious  quibbling.  • 

QUICHERAT,    L.      Traite   de   versification    franchise.      2e   ed. 
Paris:    1850. 

RAYMOND,  G.  L.     Poetry  as  a  Representative  Art.     N.  Y.  and 

Lond. :   1886. 

Both  argument  and  preface  might  inspire  more  confidence  if 
they  were  less  pretentious.  There  is  nothing  novel  in  the  chap- 
ters on  psychological  and  speculative  aesthetics.  The  devel- 
opment of  the  relation  between  elocution  and  prosody  may, 
however,  be  worth  something  to  the  general  student.  The 
nomenclature  —  initial,  median,  and  terminal  measures  —  is 
happy,  but  the  '  median  '  measure  is,  per  se,  still  as  much  a 
matter  of  question  as  is  the  existence  of  the  amphibrach  in 
English  verse. 

RUSKIN,  JOHN.     Elements   of    English    Prosody.     Orpington  : 

1880. 

While  asserting  in  his  usual  omniscient  manner  that  '  meas- 
ured times  of  utterance  are  the  basis  of  verse,'  the  author,  as 
an  afterthought,  also  informs  us  (Preface,  p.  vii)  that  '  stress- 
accent  and  quantity  are  identical.'  The  volume  has,  therefore, 


480  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

no  value  in  the  argument  beyond  what  attaches  to  the  author's 
name.  English  metres  (feet)  are  enumerated  as  ten.  The 
classical  terminology  is  preserved.  Six  metric  lines  (from 
monometer  to  hexameter)  are  discussed ;  stanzas  also,  but 
meagrely.  The  usefulness  of  the  book  lies  in  Ruskin's  semi- 
poetic  dicta  concerning  the  relative  significance  of  metres. 

SANDERS,  D.     Abriss  der  deutschen  Silbenmessung  und  Vers- 

kunst.      Berlin:    1891. 

Distinguishes  three  movements  in  German  poetry:  (i)  Old 
German  ;  (2)  the  versification  of  Opitz  on  the  basis  of  Romance 
languages;  (3)  the  versification  of  Klopstock  and  J.  H.  Voss 
on  the  basis  of  Latin  and  Greek  quantity. 

SCHERER,  W.     Zur  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprache.    2d  ed. 
Contains  a  suggestive  chapter  on  the  Origin  of  Metre. 

SCHIPPER,  J.     Englische  Metrik  (in  Paul's  Grundriss  d.  ger- 

manischen  Philologie,  Abschn.  IX). 

See  H.  Paul  above. 
SCHIPPER,  J.    Englische  Metrik  in  historischer.  .  .  .  Entwicke- 

lung.  ...     2  vols.     Bonn:   1881-88. 

This  is  the  most  scientific  and  exhaustive  treatise  to  be 
found  on  English  versification.  Vol.  I  traces  English  metres 
from  the  Anglo-Saxon  period  to  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  second  volume,  which  is  of  more  immediate  importance 
for  the  student  of  classic  English  versification,  traces  the 
growth  of  metres  from  the  beginning  of  the  Renaissance  to  the 
present  day.  The  Einleitung  (pp.  1-14)  supplies  the  reader 
with  a  very  useful  list  of  early  English  metrists ;  it  also  (p.  9) 
describes  briefly  the  movement  on  the  part  of  some  writers  of 
the  second  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  toward  imitating,  /;/ 
toto,  classical  metres.  In  chap.  II  (pp.  15-75)  Schipper  discusses 
the  rhythm  of  verse,  decides  upon  the  normal  line  in  blank  verse, 
condemns  the  '  hovering '  accent  and  Shakespeare's  '  feminine 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  481 

endings,'  and  considers  the  pause,  enjambement,  and  alliteration 
in  Later  English  Poetry.  His  division  of  the  caesura  (pp.  24- 
32)  into  stumpfe,  lyrische,  and  epische,  is  excellent,  though  some- 
what formal.  In  the  Second  Part  (pp.  164-464)  are  considered  : 

(1)  the  kinds  of  verse  handed  down  from  Old  English,  and 

(2)  (pp.  256-464)  the  kinds  of  verse  introduced  or  suggested 
by  the  influence  of  the  Renaissance.     The  chapter  on  blank 
verse  (pp.  256-374)  considers  the  style  of  the  predecessors  of 
Shakespeare,  of  Shakespeare  (pp.   287-315),   of   his  Elizabe- 
than successors,  of  Milton  (340-347),  and  of  other  poets  down 
to  the  present    time.     This   is  a  masterly  handling  of   blank 
verse ;   and    as  an   historical  treatment  it  is  the    best   avail- 
able.    Pp.  439-448    furnish    a   resume   of   the  discussion    on 
hexameters,  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  author's  presentation  of 
blank  verse,  or  of  the  sonnet.     Schipper  does  not  do  justice 
to  Arthur  Hugh  Clough  ;  if  he  has  read,  he  has  not   under- 
stood, the  '  Bothie  of  Tober-na-Vuolich,'   which  he  describes 
as  a  "  burlesque  sentimental  epos."    A  discussion  of  the  hexam- 
eters both  of  that  poem  and  of  Kingsley's  Andromeda  would 
have  been  in  place.    Schipper's  view  of  the  quantity  and  accent 
question  is  substantially  that  of  Abbott,  not  of  Ellis.     Vol.  II 
treats  of  the  strophe :  (i)  of  strophes  derived  from  Old  Eng- 
lish poetry ;   (2)  of  forms  imported  under  the  Renaissance  in- 
fluence or  later.     Pp.  766-835,  on  the  Spenserian  stanza  and 
on  ode-forms,  should  be  noted.     The  chapter  on  the  sonnet 
(pp.  835-886)  covers  the  historical  and  aesthetic  sides  admi- 
rably.     In   a  footnote   to  pp.  836-837   will  be  found  a 'fair 
bibliography  of  literature  upon  the  sonnet.     Pp.  886-936  are 
on    other   fixed   forms   of   verse.      There   is  as  yet,  unfortu- 
nately,  no   English   translation  of   this    monumental   treatise. 
In    his   Grundriss    der   englischen    Metrik    (Wien    u.    Leipz. : 
1895)   Schipper  revises  his  chapters  on  the  development  of 
the  national   metre,  and    condenses  the  whole  of  his  former 
work. 


482  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

SCHMIDT,  J.  H.  H.  Introduction  to  the  Rhythmic  and  Metric 
of  the  Classical  Languages.  Trans,  by  J.  W.  White. 
Boston:  1878. 

The  student  of  classical  versification  is  especially  referred  to 
this  treatise.  Bk.  I  opens  with  a  general  discussion  of  tone ; 
its  duration  or  quantity  ;  its  strength  or  intonation  ;  its  eleva- 
tion or  accent.  These  introductory  considerations  are  all- 
important,  for,  as  Schmidt  says,  the  understanding  of  the 
poetic  forms  of  the  classics  depends  upon  the  correct  articula- 
tion of  the  vowels.  The  author  considers  (Bk.  II)  the  metrical, 
rhythmical,  and  musical  factors  of  song.  He  then  passes  to 
the  special  treatment  of  classical  metres,  giving  under  some  six 
heads  a  clear  outline  of  the  main  principles  of  ictus,  length, 
and  substitution.  The  fundamental  forms  of  the  measure, 
equal,  unequal,  and  quinquepartite,  are  arranged  according  to 
numerical  and  musical  equivalents.  Bk.  II  closes  with  a  use- 
ful study  of  Doric  measures  (Pindaric  Odes  and  Choruses) 
and  of  Logaoedics.  Bks.  III-Vare  occupied  with  a  treatment 
of  the  rhythmical  sentence,  of  typology  and  eurythmy.  The 
common  basis  of  poetic  and  prosaic  rhythm  is  discussed  in  a 
manner  both  instructive  and  interesting.  In  the  appendix 
(pp.  154-193)  are  valuable  schemes  of  the  lyric  parts  of  the 
Medea,  of  the  Antigone,  and  an  index  to  the  metres  of 
Horace. 

This  work  is  a  clear  and  practical  presentation  of  a  subject 
covered  in  more  scientific  fashion  by  the  same  writer  in  Die 
Kunstformen  der  griechischen  Poesie  und  ihre  Bedeutung. 
4  vols.  Leipz.  :  1868-72.  The  larger  work  agrees  in  the 
main  with  the  conclusions  of  Rossbach  and  Westphal,  but 
depends  for  its  value  upon  painstaking  and  independent  re- 
search into  the  practice  of  the  Greek  poets. 

SIEVERS,  E.     Grundziige  der  Phonetik.     3d  ed.    Leipz. :  1885. 
§§  29~35  ^n  Quantity  and  Accent. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  483 

See  also  under  Paul  (Grundriss  d.  germanischen  Philologie) 
as  above;  and  on  Old  English  Versification  Sievers's  articles  in 
Paul  and  Braune's  Beitrage,  vols.  X  and  XII. 

SKEAT,  W.  W.     Essay  on  Alliterative  Poetry. 

See  Furnivall  and  Hales,  Bishop  Percy's  Folio  MS.,  Lond. : 
1867,  vol.  Ill,  pp.  xxvi-xxviii. 

SKEAT,  W.  W.     The    Complete  Works   of   Geoffrey  Chaucer. 

7  vols.     Oxford  :   1894—97. 

In  the  Introduction  to  vol.  VI  (1895)  will  be  found  the  most 
recent  authoritative  discussion  of  Chaucer's  versification.  For 
criticism  of  Professor  Skeat's  position  on  various  matters  see 
Professor  T.  R.  Lounsbury  in  the  N.  Y.  Tribune,  February  24 
and  March  3,  1895,  and  compare  Lounsbury's  treatment  of 
versification  in  his  Studies  in  Chaucer. 

SOUZA,  ROB.  DE.     Questions  de  metrique.     Le  rhythme  poe'- 
tique.     Paris:   1892. 

SPEEDING,  J.     Reviews  and    Discussions:  Literary,  Political, 
and  Historical,  not  relating  to  Bacon.     Lond.:   1879. 

Pp.  316-343  On  English  Hexameters.  (A  review  of  Matthew 
Arnold's  Three  Lectures  on  Translating  Homer.)  Reprinted 
from  frazer,  June,  1861,  with  corrections  and  explanations  con- 
taining a  criticism  of  a  paper  read  by  Mr.  Munro  before  the- 
Camb.  Philos.  Soc.,  Feb.  13,  1860. 

SPEDDING,  J.     Blackw.  7  :  641  Sweetness  of  Versification. 
SPENCER,  HERBERT.     Philosophy  of  Style.     Boston  :   1892. 

SPENCER,  HERBERT.     Illustrations  of   Universal   Progress:  A 
Series  of  Discussions.     N.  Y. :   1865. 

Pp.  210-238  The  Origin  and  Function  of  Music. 
The  essay  on  the  Origin  and  Function  of  Music  discusses 
the  relations  between  emotional  speech,  music,  poetry,  recita- 
tion, and  song.     Note  that  according  to  Spencer  the  cadences 


484  LITERARY  CRITICISM. 

of  emotional  speech  precede  the  development  of  music,  while 
by  Darwin,  Descent  of  Man,  2  :  320,  the  opposite  order  is 
maintained.  A  later  utterance  of  Spencer  is  to  be  found  in 
Mind,  October,  1890.  See  also  his  Philosophy  of  Style  for 
remarks  on  metre  and  rhyme. 

STENGEL,  EDM.     Romanische  Verslehre.     (In  Grober's  Grund- 

riss  d.  romanischen  Philologie.  Strassburg:  1893.) 
This  work,  written  in  1887  and  revised  for  publication  in 
1893,  is  in  many  respects  the  best  treatment  of  Romance 
versification  as  a  whole.  The  author  holds  to  the  theory  that 
Romance  verse  originated  in  the  Latin  popular  poetry,  and 
asserts,  somewhat  dogmatically,  that  a  fixed  number  of  syllables 
and  not  word-accent  is  the  underlying  principle.  Of  especial 
value  is  his  discussion  of  the  caesura  (for  which  he  substitutes 
the  term  Reihensfhluss)  and  of  the  development  of  the  strophe. 

STRAMWITZ,  E.     Strophen-  und  Vers-Enjambement  im  Altfran- 
zosischen.     Greifswald :   1886,  and  Leipz.:   1887. 

SYLVESTER,  J.  J.     The  Laws  of  Verse ;  or  Principles  of  Versi- 
fication, etc.     Lond. :   1870. 

The  ostensible  purpose  of  this  very  queer  book  is  to  prove 
that  "  the  technical  part  of  versification  is  capable  of  being 
reduced  to  rules  and  referred  to  fixed  principles."  The  actual 
purpose  of  the  author  seems  to  be  twofold :  first,  to  print  his 
rhymed  translation  of  Horace,  Od.  Ill,  29  ;  and,  second,  to  ex- 
press at  one  and  the  same  time  his  appreciation  of  the  esteemed 
friends  who  "  recite  his  verses,"  and  his  contempt  of  the  "  ver- 
sifiers —  highly  cried  up,  betitled,  and  decorated  ones,  too  — 
of  the  present  day,  who  have  no  notion,  explicit  or  implicit,  of 
the  law  of  syzygy  !  "  Professor  Sylvester's  translation  of  the 
Tyrrhena  regum  is  a  neat  specimen  of  scientific  versification  ; 
but  his  other  metres,  appended  for  no  satisfactory  reason  to  the 
Tyrrhena^  are,  as  he  appears  to  apprehend,  worth  very  little. 


§  23.]  REFERENCES.  485 

His  methodology  of  the  science  of  verse,  however,  if  one  has 
the  patience  to  disentangle  it  from  a  web  of  footnotes  and 
divagations,  and  unravel  the  snarls  of  its  nomenclature,  has 
the  merit  of  system  and  practicability.  When  the  student  has 
conquered  the  needless  pedantry  of  Syzygies,  Synectics,  and 
Anastomoses,  he  will  admit  that  the  division  of  poetry  into 
idealistic,  linguistic,  and  rhythmic,  and  of  rhythmic  into  metric, 
chromatic,  and  synectic,  and  each  of  these,  by  further  trichot- 
omy, into  an  unending  procession  of  trinities  or  triplets, 
should,  at  any  rate,  exhaust  the  subject.  Attention  is  called 
to  pp.  10-17,  45~49»  specially  to  the  footnotes  on  method  and 
the  text  on  the  Alcaic;  and  to  pp.  63-71,  Sylvester's  approval 
of  Poe's  theory  of  measure.  For  a  review  (of  no  great  value), 
see  Fortn.  14:  448,  by  C.  M.  Ingleby. 

SYMONDS,  J.  A.     Sketches  and  Studies  in  Southern  Europe. 
2  vols.     N.  Y. :   1880. 

Vol.  II,  pp.  325-382  Appendix  :  Blank  Verse. 

This  entertaining  article  consists  of  (i)  a  prefatory  note  on 
accent  and  quantity,  licenses,  pause,  and  elision,  which  should 
be  read  in  connection  with  Mayor's  critique  upon  the  author's 
aesthetic  theory  of  verse  ;  (2)  a  pleasant  history  of  blank  verse  ; 
and  (3)  a  treatise  on  Milton's  verse.  Symonds  derides  the 
a  priori  criticism  of  Milton's  prosody  indulged  in  by  Dr.  John- 
son, and  approves  of  the  more  liberal  metrical  theories  of  Sir 
Edgerton  Brydges  and  Keightley.  But  he  lays  himself  open, 
by  vague  and  idealistic  speculation  concerning  matters  scientific, 
to  numerous  forms  of  attack.  For  an  elaboration  of  "  aesthetic 
intuitivism  "  see  Symonds's  Predecessors  of  Shakespeare,  pp. 
590—603.  The  article  by  Symonds  with  which  Mayor  disagrees 
is  The  Blank  Verse  of  Milton,  in  Fortn.,  December,  1874. 

TISSEUR,  CLAIR.     Modestes  observations  sur  1'art  de  versifier. 
Lyon  :    1893. 

See  Rev.  d.  rHist.  Lilt.,  15  Avr.  1894  (Souriau). 


486  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§23. 

TOLMAN,  A.  H.  Andover  Review,  7:  326  The  Laws  of  Tone- 
Color  in  the  English  Language. 

An  attempt  to  derive  the  laws  of  tone-color  from  the  prac- 
tice of  English  writers.  A  simple  and  useful  statement  of  the 
subject. 

VALENTIN,  V.  Der  Rhythmus  als  Grundlage  einer  wissen- 
schaftlichen  Poetik.  Prg.  der  Handelschule  zu  Frankfurt 
a.  M.  1870. 

VERGALO,    BELLA    ROCCA    DE.      Poetique    nouvelle.       Paris : 

1880. 

The  author  puts  in  a  plea  for  verse  without  caesura  or 
elision,  in  which  hiatus  and  alliteration  shall  be  recognized  as 
essential  features.  According  to  Rodenbach  (Rev.  Bleue,  47  : 
422),  "Vergalo  est,  si  non  1'inventeur,  du  moins  le  restaurateur 
du  vers  libre." 

VIEHOFF,  H.     Die  Poetik.     (See  §  20.) 

Hd.  2,  chap.  I,  pp.  241-280  Der  Vers  ;  chap.  II,  pp.  280-304  Der 
Reim  ;  chap.  Ill,  pp.  321-461  Theorie  d.  Strophe;  p.  357  Von 
den  neuern  entlehnten  Strophenformen;  p.  382  Antike  Formen. 

WESTPHAL,  R.    [ed.]     Scriptores    Metrici    Graeci.       2    vols. 

Leipz. :   1866. 

Westphal's  Scriptores  Metrici  Graeci,  which  furnishes  us  with 
the  text  of  Hephaestion's  Enchiridion,  of  Proclus's  Chresto- 
mathia,  and  of  other  Greek  works  on  prosody,  is  the  outcome 
of  a  series  of  critical  treatises  inspired  by  Boeckh's  famous 
essay  on  the  metres  of  Pindar.  Of  these  treatises  the  first 
(giving  the  results  of  the  work  of  both  Westphal  and  Rossbach 
of  Tubingen)  appeared  in  1854,  as  Griechische  Rhythmik,  by 
A.  Rossbach.  In  1856  followed  Griechische  Metrik,  by  West- 
phal and  Rossbach.  The  authors  were  laboring  in  an  almost 


§  24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  487 

unknown  field,  and  their  work  attracted  attention.  In  1861 
was  published  Westphal's  Die  Fragmente  und  Lehrsatze  der 
griechischen  Rhythmiker,  the  most  important  volume  of  the 
series  ;  and  in  1863  came  the  same  author's  Harmonik  und 
Melopoie  der  Griechen.  For  a  lucid  statement  of  Westphal's 
contributions  to  the  history  and  science  of  Greek  prosody  see 
Hadley's  Greek  Rhythm  and  Metre  (Essays,  Philol.  and  Crit., 
pp.  81-102).  Of  Westphal's  conclusions  the  following  are 
most  noteworthy  :  (i)  that  the  relation  of  music  to  poetry  was 
entirely  different  in  the  ages  of  Greek  classical  poetry  from 
what  it  now  is ;  (2)  that  Aristophanes  and  other  ancient 
rhythmists  worked  not  theoretically  but  inductively  ;  (3)  that 
these  rhythmists  based  their  inductions  upon  the  poetry  of  the 
Golden  Age,  not  of  the  Age  of  Decline ;  (4)  that  ancient 
rhythmic  proves  the  existence  and  use  of  compound  feet ; 
(5)  that  the  practice  of  pause  and  prolongation  obtained  in 
Greek  verse.  See  also  Westphal's  Metrik  d.  indogerman. 
Volker,  in  Kukris  Zts.  9 :  437  ;  Tradition  of  Anc.  Metre, 
P/iilologus,  20:76.  On  non-classical  metres,  see  Westphal's 
Theorie  d.  neuhochdeutschen  Metrik  (Jena:  1877),  and  his 
important  work  entitled  Allgemeine  Metrik  d.  indogerman.  u. 
semit.  Volker  auf  Grundlage  d.  vergleich.  Sprachwissenschaft, 
mit  einem  Excursus  :  Der  griech.  Hexameter  in  d.  deutschen 
Nachbildung,  von  H.  Kruse  (Berlin:  1892). 


§  24.       GENERAL  NOTE. 

A.  CLASSICAL  METRES.1 —  i.  It  is  not  our  purpose  to  furnish 
an  exhaustive  bibliography  of  versification.  The  literature  of 
Greek  and  Latin  metres  would  itself  fill  a  volume.  For  the 

i  Additional  material  will  be  found  in  Sulzer's  Allgemeine  Theorie  der  schonen 
Kiinste,  and  in  Blankenburg's  Lit.  Zusatze,  under  the  titles:  Accent,  Dichtkunst 
(Poetik),  Proi'dJie,  Sylbenmaas,  and  Vers. 


488  LITER AR  Y  CRITICISM.  [§  24. 

general  outline  of  the  subject  the  student  should  consult  the 
standard  Greek  and  Latin  grammars  and  such  works  as  Boeckh's 
Encyklopadie,  Corssen's  Aussprache,  Vokalismus  u.  Betonung 
d.  lateinischen  Sprache  (2  vols.  2d  ed.  Leipzig:  1888); 
WestphaFs  Metrik  d.  Griechen  (2  vols.  2d  ed.  1867);  Iwan 
Muller's  Handbuch  d.  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  espe- 
cially Blass's  chapter  on  Hermeneutik  u.  Kritik  (see  §  23), 
and  Blass's  essay  Metrik  ;  Klotz's  Ueber  die  neueren  Erschei- 
nungen  auf  d.  Gebiete  d.  gr.  u.  rom.  Metrik,  in  Muller's  Jahres- 
bericht  u.  d.  Fortschr.  d.  class.  Altertunisw.,  1886,  pp.  26-160  ;  W. 
Christ's  Metrik  d.  Griechen  u.  Romer  ;  and  J.  H.  H.  Schmidt's 
Introduction  to  the  Rhythmic  and  Metric  of  the  Classical  Lan- 
guages (trans,  by  J.  W.  White.  Boston  :  1878).  Somewhat 
antiquated  but  still  griindlich  eingehende  are  Munck's  Die  Metrik 
d.  Griech.  u.  Rom.,  1834,  and  Freese's  Die  griech.-rom.  Metrik, 
1842.  While  Bentley  was  the  father  of  modern  metrical  criti- 
cism, Boeckh,  by  his  great  work  De  metris  Pindari,  gave  that 
decisive  impulse  to  inductive  study  of  ancient  metric  and  met- 
rists  which  has  resulted  in  the  treatises  of  Rossbach,  Westphal, 
and  J.  H.  H.  Schmidt ;  in  the  Grundziige  d.  griech.  Rhythmik 
im  Anschluss  an  Aristides  Quintilianus,  of  Julius  Caesar,  1861  ; 
and  in  the  articles  apropos  of  the  subject  by  Weil,  Susemihl, 
and  others,  in  Jahn's  Jahrb'iicher,  1856-63.  What  light  the 
scholarly  investigation  into  the  metres  of  Pindar  has  thrown 
upon  Greek  prosody  will  be  appreciated  by  the  student  fa- 
miliar with  Professor  Gildersleeve's  edition  of  the  Olympian 
and  Pythian  Odes  (N.  Y. :  1885).  The  Preface  to  this  work 
calls  attention  to  Engelbrecht's  contributions  to  Greek  metric  ; 
M.  Schmidt's  Ueber  d.  Bau  d.  Pindarischen  Strophen  (Leipz. : 
1882)  ;  Mezger,  Thiersch,  Cronet,  Dissen,  Fiirtwangler,  and 
others.  Professor  Gildersleeve,  in  his  chapter  on  the  metres 
of  Pindar  (pp.  Ixiii-lxxvi)  gives  a  valuable  summary  of  the 
more  complicated  metrical  schemes  of  J.  H.  H.  Schmidt  and 
Westphal.  Dissen's  article,  De  ratione  poetica  carminum  Pin- 


§24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  489 

claricorum  et  de  interpretationis  genere  iis  adhibendo,  will  be 
found  in  his  edition  of  Pindar  (1830),  pp.  xi-xciv.  Boeckh's 
Kritik  d.  Ausg.  d.  Pindar  von  Dissen  is  especially  valuable  ; 
it  is  contained  in  his  Kleinere  Schriften,  7  :  369.  See  also 
Alf.  Croiset's  La  poesie  de  Pindare  et  les  lois  du  lyrisme  grec 
(Paris:  1880),  and  O.  Riemann  and  M.  Dufour's  Traite  de 
rhythmique  et  de  metrique  grecque  (Paris:  1894). 

As  a  result  of  the  impulse  to  metrical  research  given  by 
Boeckh  and  Westphal,  treatises  have  been  multiplied  on  the 
metres  of  the  Greek  tragedies,  epics,  and  lyrics.  For  a  bibliog- 
raphy of  them  the  student  is  referred  to  standard  editions  of 
the  various  Greek  poets. 

2.  GREEK  METRISTS.  —  To  a  study  of  Greek  writers  on  ver- 
sification Hadley's  Essay,  recommended  §  23  above,  Usener's 
Altgriech.  Versbau  (Bonn:  1887),  and  Diihr's  Ueber  Metrik 
u.  Rhythmik  will  be  a  good  introduction.  The  student  must 
turn  to  J.  H.  H.  Schmidt,  to  Boeckh's  De  metr.  Find,  and  his 
Encykl.  d.  klass.  Wissenschaften,  p.  547,  to  Westphal's  Frag- 
mente  u.  Lehrsatze  and  his  Scriptores  metrici  graeci,  as  well 
as  to  the  commentaries  on  Greek  music,  for  more  intimate  and 
immediate  acquaintance  with  the  rhythmic  elements  of  Aris- 
toxenus,  pupil  of  Aristotle,  and,  according  to  Boeckh,  summus 
auctor  in  the  matter  of  Greek  rhythm  (the  best  translation 
is  Westphal's,  Leipz. :  1883  ;  see  Preface  for  exhaustive  his- 
tory of  the  discussion),  —  with  the  De  composit.  verborum  of 
Dionysius  Halicarnassus  (ist  cent.  B.C.),  ed.  Schafer,  —  with 
Plutarch's  De  musica  (ist  cent.  B.C.),  and  with  the  treatise  on 
the  same  subject  by  Aristides  Quintilianus  (2d  cent.  A.D.). 
The  Studien  zur  alten  griech.  Musik,  by  Joh.  Papastamatopulos 
(Bonn  :  1878),  furnishes  other  valuable  material.  Proceeding 
to  the  more  formal  treatises  on  metre,  there  should  be  noticed, 
among  the  grammarians,  Aristophanes  of  Byzantium  (264  B.C.)  ; 
Dracon  of  Stratonicea  (A.D.  130),  whose  -n-epl  /x-eVptov  is  edited 
by  G.  Hermann  (Leipz.  :  1812)';  Hephaestion  (circa  A.D.  150), 


490  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [_§  24- 

author  of  the  Enchiridion  of  Metres  (ed.  by  Gaisford.  Oxford  : 
1810  ;  and  by  Westphal,  Scriptores  metr.  grace.,  vol.  I,  trans, 
by  Barham.  Cantab.:  1843);  Longinus  (b.  A.D.  213),  whose 
Prolegomena  to  Hephaestion's  Enchiridion  will  be  found  in 
Westphal's  Scriptores  metr.  grace.;  Proclus  (5th  cent.  A.D.); 
and  others.  See  Westphal,  Scriptores  metr.  graec.,  vols.  I  and 
II.  In  general,  on  Greek  metres,  see  Boeckh,  Encykl.  d.  klass. 
Wiss.,  pp.  813,  818,  844. 

3.  LATIN  METRES.  —  Beside  the  sections  on  Metric  in 
Boeckh,  Encykl.,  pp.  818,  846,  848,  and  in  the  standard  Latin 
grammars,  should  be  consulted  the  chapters  relative  to  the 
subject  in  the  best-known  histories  of  Latin  literature.  The 
student's  attention  is  called  especially  to  Bahr's  Geschichte  d. 
rom.  Litt.  (3  vols.  Carlsruhe  :  1868—70)  ;  Barnhardy's  Grund- 
riss  d.  rom.  Litt.  (Braunschw.  :  1869-72) ;  TeuffePs  Geschichte 
d.  rom.  Litt.,  Leipzig  (trans,  by  W.  Wagner.  2  vols.  Lond. : 
1873);  Munck's  Geschichte  d.  rom.  Litt.  (3  vols.  Berlin  :  1858- 
61)  ;  and  to  the  chapters  on  literature  in  Mommsen's  History 
of  Rome.  The  works  on  Latin  literature  of  the  Frenchmen 
Boissier,  Champagny,  Diderot,  and  Nisard  may  be  consulted 
ad  loc.  For  commentaries  on  the  verse  of  special  Latin  poets 
or  of  periods  of  Latin  literature  see  John  Wordsworth's  Frag- 
ments and  Specimens  of  Early  Latin  (Oxford:  1874);  West- 
phal's Ueber  d.  Form  d.  altesten  romischen  Poesie  ;  R.  Klotz's 
Grundziige  d.  altromischen  Metrik  (Leipz. :  1890)  ;  Ribbeck's 
Frag.  lat.  relliquiae  (Berlin  :  1835)  and  his  Comic,  lat.  relli- 
quiae  ;  Ritschl's  or  Fleckeisen's  Plautus  ;  Vahlen's  Ennianae 
poeseos  relliquiae  ;  C.  F.  W.  Miiller's  Plautinische  Prosodie  ; 
W.  Wagner's  Terence  (Cantab.  :  1869);  L.  Miiller's  Lucilius  ; 
C.  O.  Miiller's  Varro's  De  lingua  latina  (Leipz.  :  1833)  ; 
Munro's  Lucretius  (Cantab.  :  1866);  Ellis's  Catullus  (Oxford  : 
1876)  or  Simpson's  Catullus;  Ribbeck's  or  Conington's  Vergil ; 
Orelli's  Horace  (2  vols.  1850)  or  Macleane's  ed. ;  Lachmann's 
Tibullus  and  Propertius  (Berlin  :  1829)  ;  Paley's  or  Postgate's 


§24.]  GENERAL  NOTE.  491 

Propertius ;  Merkel's  Ovid  (3  vols.  Leipz. :  1851);  Haase's 
Seneca  (3  vols.  Leipz.:  1862-71).  For  commentaries  upon 
poets  of  the  period  of  decline  see  CruttwelFs  Hist.  Rom.  Lit., 
pp.  487-489,  from  which  several  of  the  titles  here  cited  are 
taken. 

The  bibliography  of  Latin  versification  arranged  according 
to  the  periods  of  Latin  literature  may  be  directly  and  exactly 
obtained  by  the  student  who  will  turn  over,  page  by  page,  the 
admirably  executed,  but  poorly  indexed,  Bibliographical  Clue  to 
Latin  Literature,  ed.,  after  Hiibner,  by  Prof.  John  E.  B.  Mayor 
(Lond. :  1875).  On  pp.  7-10  will  be  found  most  of  the  au- 
thorities on  the  earliest  Latin  verse  :  Schneidewin,  Hermann, 
Diintzer,  Corssen,  Westphal,  Ribbeck,  Bartsch,  etc.  For  Livius, 
Ennius,  Naevius,  and  Plautus,  see  pp.  12-18  under  general 
list,  or  sub-title  Language  and  Metres;  on  Terence,  see  p.  19  ; 
and  so,  in  chronological  order,  through  this  valuable  little 
volume. 

4.  LATIN  METRISTS.  —  The  bibliography  of  Cornificius 
(Rhetorica  ad  Herennium)  will  be  found  in  Mayor's  Clue, 
p.  43.  Quintilian  should  be  consulted  (De  orat.  inst.  i:  10; 
ix :  4).  Caesius  Bassus's  (before  A.D.  90)  Fragmentum  de 
metris  will  be  found  in  Keil's  Scriptores  artis  metricae,  p.  243 
et  seq.  (vol.  VI  of  Grammatici  latini.  Leipz. :  1874.  Bibliog- 
raphy of  Bassus,  Mayor's  Clue,  p.  91).  Aulus  Gellius,  Noctes 
atticae,  xvi:i8,  should  be  consulted.  The  De  litteris,  de 
syllabis,  de  metris,  of  Terentianus  Maurus  (end  of  3d  cent. 
A.D.),  is  given  in  Keil  as  above,  p.  313  et  seq.;  bibliography  in 
Mayor's  Clue,  p.  99.  For  the  Fragment,  formerly  attributed  to 
Censorinus,  on  Music  and  Metres,  see  Keil,  pp.  605-616,  and 
Mayor's  Clue,  pp.  161-162.  For  the  Ars  Atiliae  Fortunatiani 
(about  A.D.  350),  see  'Keil,  p.  278  et  seq.;  for  Marii  Victorini 
artis  grammaticae,  libri  IV  (about  A.D.  350),  see  Keil,  p.  i 
et  seq.;  for  Marii  Plotii  Sacerdotis  artium  grammaticarum, 
libri  tres,  see  Keil,  p.  417  et  seq.;  for  Aelius  Donatus,  see 


492  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

Keil,  Gram,  lat,  vol.  VI,  and  references  in  the  works  of 
Marius  Victorinus,  Max.  Victorinus,  Rufinus,  and  others  in 
Keil,  vol.  VI ;  and  for  bibliography  of  the  foregoing  and  for  the 
commentators  of.  Donatus,  Flavius  Mallius  Theodorus,  Marius 
Servius  Honoratus,  and  Sergius  (about  A.D.  355),  see  Mayor's 
Clue,  pp.  172,  173.  The  De  metris  of  Theodorus  is  given  by 
Keil,  vol.  VI,  pp.  599-601.  Of  the  metrists  of , the  5th  century 
Rufinus  (De  metris  comicorum  et  de  numeris  oratorum)  figures 
in  Keil,  pp.  547-578,  and  in  Mayor's  Clue,  pp.  173,  174.  Keil 
(pp.  617-646)  appends  Fragmenta  et  excerpta  metrica,  includ- 
ing the  De  pedibus  and  De  caesuris  of  Julius  Severus.  As 
to  the  metrists  of  the  6th  and  7th  centuries,  a  bibliography  of 
Aldhelm  will  be  found  in  Mayor,  p.  211,  and  of  Bede,  on  p.  213. 
Bede's  De  arte  rnetrica  will  be  found  in  vol.  VI,  pp.  40-79, 
of  Bede's  Miscellaneous  Works,  ed.  by  Giles  (12  vols.  Lond. : 
1843-44).  For  passages  from  St.  Augustine  (De  musica),  Dio- 
medes  (Gram,  lat.),  Charisius  (Gram,  lat.),  see  Kawczynski, 
pp.  50-52.  Consult  also  Cicero,  De  oratore,  III:  48,  and 
Orator,  58. 

5.  ON  CLASSICAL  ALLITERATION,  RHYME,  RHYTHM,  AND 
ACCENT,  see  Blass  (Hermeneutik  u.  Kritik,  pp.  211,  212). — 
GREEK  :  Beer,  Dearte  Aeschyli  (Leipz. :  1877);  Gustafsson,  De 
vocum  in  poemat.  gr.  consonantia,  Acta  Soc.  Fennicae,  xi  (1879), 
p.  297  et  seq,  ;  Jacobi,  Fr.,  De  usu  alliterationis  apud  Sophoclem 
(Gottingen  :  1872);  Jacob,  G.,  De  aequali  stroph.  et  antistroph. 
in  trag.  gr.  confirmatione  (Berlin  :  1866);  Holzapfel,  Zeitschrift 
fur  Gymnasialwiss.  1851,  page  i  Ueber  den  Gleichklang  bei 
Homer  ;  Isid.  Hilberg,  Die  Princip.  d.  Silbenwagung  u.  d.  daraus 
entspringenden  Gesetze  d.  Endsylben  in  d.  gr.  Poesie  (Wien  : 
1879)  ;  Kiehl,  Mnemosyne,  1852,  p.  202  Correspondierender 
Reim  bei  Aesch.  —  LATIN  :  Luc.  Milller,'  De  re  metrica  lat., 
p.  455  ;  A.  F.  Nacke,  Rhein.  Mus.  1829,  p.  324  Reime  b.  d.  klass. 
Dichtern ;  H.  Usener,  Jahrb.  f.  Phil.  1873,  p.  174  Reim  in 
altlat.  Poesie  ;  E.  Wofflin,  Berichte  d.  Eayr.  Acad.  1881,  2  :  i 


§  24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  493 

Bei  den  Dichtern  ;  Landgraf  and  Wolfflin,  Sitzungsb.  d.  k.  Akad. 
Miinchen,  Ueber  d.  alliterirenden  Verbindungen  d.  lat.  Sprache, 
1887  ;  Weil  and  Benloew,  Theorie  de  1'accentuation  latine, 
in  the  Philolog.  Versamml.  in  Gottingen,  1852,  pp.  66,  240  ; 
also  H.  Weil,  ibid.-,  p.  85  et  seq. ;  Seelmann,  Die  Aussprache 
des  Latein  ;  W.  Meyer  in  Abhg.  d.  k.  Bayr.  Acad.,  tome  59  : 
371.  To  these  references  should  be  added  J.  B.  Greenough's 
Accentual  Rhythm  in  Latin,  in  Harvard  Studies  in  Class. 
Philol.  IV:  105-115;  and  Early  Latin  Prosody,  Harvard 
Studies,  ¥157-71;  O.  Dingeldein's  Gleichklang  u.  Reim  in 
antiker  Poesie  (Biidingen  :  1888),  and  Der  Reim  bei  den  Grie- 
chen  und  Romern  (Leipz. :  1892)  ;  and  W.  Grimm's  article  on 
rhyme  in  classical  Latin  verse  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Berlin 
Academy,  1851. 

On  classical  rhythms,  see  G.  Amsel,  De  vi  atque  indole 
rhythmorum  quid  veteres  judicaverint  (Vratislaw :  1887),  in 
Bresl.  philol.  Abhandlg.  1:3;  K.  Deutschmann,  De  poesis 
grace,  rhythmicae  primordiis  (Malmedy :  1883.  Progr.)  and 
De  poesis  grace,  rhythm,  usu  et  origine  (Koblentz  :  1889. 
Progr.)  ;  J.  A.  Hartung,  Geschichte  der  Rhythmenschopfung 
in  griech.  Lyriker  (5  vols.  Leipz. :  1858)  ;  W.  Meyer,  Anfang 
und  Ursprung  d.  lat.  u.  griech.  rhythm.  Dichtung  (Miinchen  : 
1885.  Akad.  Abhandlg:}. 

On  classical  alliteration,  see  C.  Botticker,  De  alliter.  apud 
Rom.  vi  et  usu  (Berlin :  1884)  ;  W.  Ebrard,  Die  Alliteration  in 
d.  lat.  Sprache  (Bayr.  :  1882.  Progr.)  ;  H.  Habenicht,  Allitera- 
tion bei  Horaz  (Eger :  1885.  Progr.);  E.  Loch,  Rhein.  Museum, 
3  (1829):  324  De  alliteratione  serm.  lat. 

On  classical  accent,  see  T.  H.  Key,  Trans.  Eng.  Philol.  Soc., 
1873-74,  p.  35  Accent  a  Guiding  Principle,  not  merely  of  the 
Old  Comic  Metres,  but  generally  of  Latin  Poetry  ;  and  first  of 
Virgil's  Latin  Hexameters ;  W.  Meyer,  Ueber  die  Beobachtung 
des  Wortaccents  in  d.  altlat.  Poesie  (Miinchen  :  1884,  Akad. 
Abhandlg.}. 


494  LTTERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

6.  TRANSITION  TO  ACCENT.    On  the  transition  from  the  prin- 
ciple of  quantity  in  the  Latin  poetry  to  that  of  accent  (as  in 
Latin  hymns),  see   Huemer's   Untersuchungen  iiber  die  a'lte- 
sten  lat.  christ.   Rythmen   (Wien  :    1879)  an^  his  Untersuch- 
ungen iiber  d.  jambisch.  Dimeter  bei  d.  .  .  .   Hymnendichtern 
d.  vorkarolingischen   Zeit  (Wien  :    1879.     Progr.)  ;    Zarncke's 
Zwei   mittelalterliche   Abhandlg.  iiber  d.  Bau  rhythm.  Verse, 
Berichte  d.  k.  sacks.  Ges.  der  Wissensch.  1871,  p.  34;  Du  Meril, 
Poesie  populaire  lat.  du  moyen  age.     See  also  Kawczynski, 
chap.  VII  et  seq.,  for  a  history  of  the  transition  ;  J.  A.  Symonds, 
Wine,  Women,  and  Song,  pp.  8—14,  181   for  materials  of  Goli- 
ardic  Literature  (rhymed  Latin).     A  standard  treatise  is  Ferd. 
Wolf's  Ueber  die  Lais,  Sequenzen  u.  Leiche,  .  .  .   Ein  Beitrag 
zur  Gesch.  d.  rhythm.  Formen  d.  Volkslieder,  .   .  .     Kirchen  u. 
Kunstlieder  im  Mittelalter  (Heidelb.  :   1841).     See  also  Ritschl, 
Opusc.  phi!.,  vol.  I,  p.  289  Accentuirte  Verse,  for  the  treatment 
of  the  same  transition  in  Greek  poetry. 

7.  OF  MAGAZINE  ARTICLES  ON  GREEK  AND  LATIN  PROSODY 
the  name  is  legion ;  the  painstaking  investigator  will  find  specially 
useful  matter  among  the  following :   Trans.  Amer.  PhiloL  Assoc. 
16  :  30  Feminine  Caesura  in  Homer  (Seymour)  ;   16  :  78  Quan- 
tity (Goodell);  Am.  School  at  Athens,  Papers,  vol.  IV  Greek 
Versification  in  Inscriptions  (Allen)  ;  Archiv.f.  PhiloL  u.  Paed. 
2  :  268—307   Ueber  Hermann's  Lehre  vom  Vortrage  d.  griech. 
u.  lat.  Vers  (Gotthold)  ;  Jahrb.f.  PhiloL  u.  Paed.  122:  65  The- 
orie  d.  Versmasses  (Hermann);   123:  753  De  Saturnio  Versu 
(Schweizer-Sidler) ;   124:  599;   126:   121,  144  Begriff  d.  Metr. 
(Minckwitz)  ;   133:  451  Kleine  Beitrage  (Blass)  \Journ.  PhiloL 
4:  223   Latin   Metres   in   English  (Munro) ;    12:    136  Tragic 
Metres  (Verrall)  ;    18  :   161   Iambic  Trimeter  (Platt)  ;   Kuhifs 
Zeitsehrift,  24:  556  Origin  of  Homeric  Metre  (Allen)  ;  Pliilolo- 
gtts,  i  :  395  Dithyrambos  (Hartung)  55:85  Zur  Metrik  (Meiss- 
ner);    10:   i    Choriambus    (Meissner)  ;    250    Latein.   Hexam. 
(Grain)  ;   n  :  328  Namen  d.  Fiisse  (Leutsch)  ;  533  De  hexam. 


§24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  495 

lat.  (Froehde)  ;  12  :  12  Entstehung  d.  ep.  Hexam.'s  (Leutsch); 
23  :  8 1  Vom  Saturnischen  Verse  (Spengel)  ;  24:  407  ;  25  :  54 
Auflosungen  im  Trimeter  (Rumpel)  ;  25:  471  ;  26:  241  Griech. 
Trag.  Metr.  (Rumpel) ;  28  :  230  Vom  Saturnischen  Verse 
(Diintzer) ;  425  Griech.  Troch.  Tetram.  (Rumpel);  31  :  98 
Latein.  Ictus,  etc.  (Langen);  193  Griech.  Takte  (M.  Schmidt); 
33:  461  Griech.  Pausen  (Buchholtz) ;  46:  27  Pseudo-Plutar- 
chus  de  metro  heroico;  Rhein.  Museum  8:  529  Iamb.  Tetram. 
Terent.  (Krauss)  ;  25  :  232  Metrik  u.  Musik  (Brambach)  ;  33  : 
509  Varro's  Beurtheilung  d.  rdmisch.  Versmasses  (Buchholtz)  ; 
45  :  236,  385  Latein.  Hexam.  (Eskuche) ;  41:  427  Iamb. 
Trim.  (Kopp).  See  also  file  of  Transactions  Philol.  Society, 
of  Herrig's  Archiv,  and  of  the  Zeitschrift  f.  deutsch.  Philol. 
Note  also  a  dissertation  by  Johansson  on  Latin  ictus  and 
accent  in  the  writers  of  comedy  (Upsala,  Univ.  Dissert.,  vol. 
III). 

B.  MODERN  METRES.  —  i .  To  the  historical  position  and 
theoretic  value  of  English  treatises  on  versification  the  best 
guides  are  Schipper,  Luick  and  Schipper  in  Paul's  Grundr.  d. 
germ.  Phil.,  Guest,  and,  for  a  brief  historical  sketch  of  English 
metric  accompanied  by  an  annotated  bibliography,  Karl  Elze's 
Grundriss  d.  englischen  Philologie,  Halle  :  1889,  pp.  361-386 
Metrik.  (See  §  23.) 

Nathan  Drake's  Shakespeare  and  his  Times  (2  vols.  Lond. : 
1817),  vol.  I,  pp.  461-470,  has  been  freely  used  by  Schipper. 
Joseph  Haslewood's  edition  of  ancient  critical  essays  on  Eng- 
lish Poets  and  Poesy  (2  vols.  Lond.:  1811—15)  supplies  not 
only  the  texts  of  the  more  important  Elizabethan  works  on 
poetics,  but  also,  in  prefaces  and  footnotes,  most  of  the  informa- 
tion at  his  time  procurable  concerning  the  lives  of  the  authors. 
(Arber's  reprints  of  these  essays  furnish,  of  course,  the  results 
of  later  research.)  Haslewood  himself  draws  his  details  largely 
from  Strype's  Annals,  Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry, 


496  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

Seward's  Anecdotes  of  Distinguished  Persons,  Nichols's  Queen 
Elizabeth's  Progresses,  and  the  Censura  Literaria.  Dr.  Schip- 
per  in  his  Neuenglische  Metrik,  vol.  I,  pp.  7-12,  runs  over  the 
principal  features  of  Elizabethan  criticism,  basing  many  of  his 
judgments  upon  Haslewood,  and  upon  Haslewood's  citations 
from  Gilchrist  in  the  Censura  Literaria.  See  also  F.  E.  Schel- 
ling's  Poetic  and  Verse  Criticism  of  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth 
(Publications  of  Univ.  of  Penn.,  vol.  I). 

2.  EARLIER  ATTEMPTS  AT  ENGLISH  METRIC. — Of  incidental 
criticism  of  English  verse  before  1570,  the  most  noteworthy 
appears  in  Roger  Ascham's  Scholemaster,  published  in  that 
year,  but  written  probably  between  1563  and  1568.  Ascham 
is  distressed  that  his  countrymen  will  "  follow  the  Goths  in 
rhyming  "  rather  than  "  the  Greeks  in  true  versifying."  To  be 
sure,  "  the  English  tongue  does  not  well  receive  the  Carmen 
Heroicum,  and  the  Carmen  Hexametrum  does  rather  trot  and 
hobble  than  run  smoothly,"  but  the  Carmen  lambicum  is  as 
well  adapted  to  English  as  to  Greek  or  Latin.  The  author 
praises  Surrey  for  his  unrhymed  translation  of  Virgil.  He 
rises  to  real  poetic  criticism  in  the  condemnation  of  contem- 
porary English  tragedy.  (See  Arber's  Reprint,  pp.  145-147.) 
The  earliest  theoretic  examination  of  English  verse  known  to 
us  is  George  Gascoigne's  Certayne  Notes  of  Instruction  con- 
cerning the  making  of  Verse  or  Rhyme  in  English  (Lond.  : 
1575).  It  will  be  found  in  Haslewood,  vol.  II,  pp.  3-12,  is  in 
the  form  of  a  letter  thrown  off  for  the  benefit  of  one  Master 
Edouardo  Donati,  and  treats  in  an  eminently  sensible  way  the 
errors  that  an  unskilled  versifier  is  liable  to  fall  into.  In  §  4 
the  wrenching  of  accents  is  condemned ;  in  §  6  the  use  of 
" rime  without  reason."  In  §§  14  and  16  the  Rithme  Royal, 
the  Ballade,  the  Sonnet,  the  Verlay,  the  Poulter's  Measure,  and 
the  Ryding  Rime  are  touched  upon  and  tossed  to  one  side  in  a 
right  "preposterous  order"  but  with  "brevitie."  Next  on  the 
list  comes  the  pleasant  correspondence  of  Spenser  and  Gabriel 


§24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  497 

Harvey,  which  appears  in  Haslewood  (vol.  II,  pp.  255-303) 
under  the  headings,  Three  Proper  and  Wittie  Familiar  Letters, 
lately  passed  between  two  Universitie  men  :  touching  the  Earth- 
quake in  Aprill  last,  and  our  English  refourmed  Versifying; 
and  Two  Other  very  Commendable  Letters,  of  the  same  men's 
writing  :  both  touching  the  foresaid  Artificial!  Versifying,  and 
certain  Other  Particulars.  These  are  of  the  years  1579  and 
1580;  the  two  latter  being  prior  in  composition.  They  are, 
as  Chalmers  says  in  his  apology,  instructive  for  their  criticism 
and  dignified  for  their  sense.  Harvey  was  an  enthusiast  for 
the  introduction  of  classic  metres  into  English ;  and  Spenser, 
though  he  found  that  the  forced  union  of  quantity  and  accent 
made  many  a  word,  like  a  lame  gosling,  draw  one  "  legge  after 
hir,"  still  did  not  see  "  why  a  God's  name  we  may  not,  as  else 
the  Greekes,  have  the  Kingdom  of  our  owne  Language,  and 
measure  our  Accentes  by  the  sounde,  reserving  the  Quantitie 
to  the  Verse."  The  criticism  in  Harvey's  letter  of  Oct.  23, 
1579,  on  Spenser's  iambic  trimeters  is  an  amusing  piece  of 
pedantry.  The  letters  throw  light  on  the  eminent  but  still  ob- 
scure society  of  the  Areopagus.  It  is  probably  to  these  let- 
ters and  to  Gascoigne's  Notes  of  Instruction  that  King  James 
refers  in  his  "  Schort  Treatise  conteining  some  Reulis  and  Cau- 
telis  to  be  observit  and  eschewit  in  Scottis  Poesie,"  1584.  For 
he  prefaces  that  part  of  his  "  Essayes  of  a  Prentise "  with 
the  statement  that  "  mony  learnit  men,  baith  of  auld  and  of 
late  hes  already  written  thairof  [of  Poetry]  in  divers  and  sindry 
languages."  There  is  little  imaginative  force  in  King  James's 
treatment  of  rymitig,  of  fete,  of  flowing,  of  wordis,  of  sentences, 
and  of  phrasis  in  verse  ;  but  there  is  a  quantum  of  hard  Scots 
in  his  caution  concerning  Ryming  in  Termis,  and  the  use  of 
Tumbling  Verse  ;  and  in  the  advice  to  "  put  in  verse  .  .  .  ne 
wordis,  other  than  metri  causa,  or  zit  for  filling  furth  the  nom- 
ber  of  fete,  bot  that  they  be  all  sa  necessaire  ...  as  in  case  ze 
were  speiking  the  same  purpose  in  prose.  ..  .  ..  "  And  that  "  ze 


498  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

waie  zour  wordis  according  to  this  purpose."  The  royal  author 
uses  the  word  "fute"  consistently  for  verse-syllable.  He  does 
not  show  any  acquaintance  with  Sidney's  Defense  of  Poesie 
(1581-95,  see  §21,  B  2).  For  Sidney's  attitude  toward  the 
revival  of  classic  versification,  see  Cook's  edition,  pp.  55-57. 
E.  Fliigel's  edition  of  the  Ponsonby  text  (Halle:  1889)  must 
not  be  overlooked.  The  Preface  to  William  Webbe's  Discourse 
of  English  Poetrie,  1586,  says  that  the  "  Laureat  Masters  of 
England  might  winne  credit  to  their  native  speeche  ...  if 
English  Poetrie  were  truly  reformed,  and  some  perfect  plat- 
forme  or  Prosodia  of  versifying  were  by  them  ratifyed  and  sette 
downe  .  .  .  "after  the  fashion  of  the  Greeks  and  Latins.  A 
large  part  of  the  Discourse  is  occupied  with  a  resume  of  opin- 
ions touching  poets,  Greek,  Latin,  and  English.  Imitators  and 
translators  of  the  Latin  are  commended.  From  p.  54  on 
(Haslewood's  edition)  will  be  found  Webbe's  remarks  on  pros- 
ody. The  work  closes  with  certain  not  very  commendable 
experiments  in  hexameters,  Sapphics,  and  other  classical 
metres.  In  the  appendix  are  "  Englished  "  Horace's  "  Can- 
ons of  Poetry "  from  the  scheme  of  Fabricius  Cremnicensis. 
Webbe  was  succeeded  by  an  equally  ardent  advocate  of  Eng- 
lish hexameters,  Abraham  Fraunce,  whose  Arcadian  Rhetoricke, 
or  the  Precepts  of  Rhetoricke  made  plain  by  example,  Greeke, 
Latyne,  English,  Italyan,  and  Spanish,  appeared  in  1588.  It 
is  written  in  prose  and  .verse,  and  abounds  with  metrical  experi- 
ments by  the  author.  Hake's  Touchstone  of  Wittes,  of  the 
same  year,  is  based  upon  the  Arcadian  Rhetoricke.  A  far  abler 
critic  than  Webbe  or  Fraunce  was  George  Puttenham,  concern- 
ing whose  Arte  of  English  Poetrie,  published  in  1589,  Sir  John 
Harrington  says:  "A  whole  receit  of  Poetrie  is  [here]  prescribed, 
with  so  manie  new-named  figures  as  would  put  me  in  great 
hope  in  this  age  to  come  would  breed  manie  excellent  Poets, 
save  for  one  observation  that  I  gather  out  of  the  verie  same 
book;  ...  he  doth  prove  nothing  more  plainly  than  that 


§24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  499 

poetry  is  a  gift  and  not  an  art."  Puttenham's  work  is  on  a 
large  scale  ;  it  discusses  in  three  books  Poets  and  Poesie,  Pro- 
portion Poetical,  and  Ornament.  His  history  of  poets  and  his 
judgments  are  valuable.  His  arrangement  of  verse  in  lozenges, 
rhomboids,  pilasters  and  eggs,  is  a  whimsical  and  curious  van- 
ity. It  is  indeed  not  incredible  that  'when  he  wrote  of  these 
devices  he  smiled  with  himself.'  But  as  a  treatise  on  prosody 
and  on  rhetorical  figures,  the  Arte  of  English  Poetrie  is  of  greater 
historical  and  practical  importance  than  any  contemporary  essay 
on  criticism.  On  the  cesure,  accent,  time,  stir,  cadence,  etc., 
see  Haslewood,  vol.  I,  p.  61  et  seq.;  on  Greek  and  Latin  metres, 
p.  85  et  seq,  Puttenham  is  not  an  advocate  of  English  versifi- 
cation by  quantity.  On  the  subject  of  versification  Sir  John 
Harrington's  Apologie  for  Poetrie  (1591)  profits  the  student 
but  little.  There  is,  also,  little  on  prosody  to  be  found  in  the 
well-known  Comparative  Discourse  of  our  English  Poets,  with 
the  Greeke,  Latine,  and  Italian  Poets  (an  excerpt  from  the  Pal- 
ladis  Tamia),  written  in  1598  by  Francis  Meres.  A  very  impor- 
tant attempt  at  reforming  English  verse  on  the  classical  basis 
was  Thomas  Campion's  Observations  on  the  Art  of  English 
Poesie  (1602).  "Old  customes,"  says  the  poet-critic,  "if  they 
be  better,  why  should  they  not  be  recald?  as  the  yet  florishing 
custome  of  numerous  poesy  used  among  the  Romans  and  Gre- 
cians." Since  then  (Haslewood,  vol.  II,  p.  164)  "the  facilitie 
and  popularitie  of  Rime  creates  as  many  poets,  as  a  hot  summer 
flies,"  ...  "I  have  studyed  to  induce  a  true  forme  of  versefy- 
ing  into  our  language:  for  the  vulgar  and  unartificiall  custome 
of  riming  hath  I  know  deter'd  many  excellent  wits  from  the 
exercise  of  English  Poesy."  Campion  not  only  declares  the 
unaptness  of  rhyme,  but  shows  how  the  English  tongue  may 
receive  eight  several  kinds  of  classical  numbers.  His  rules  for 
quantity  in  English  verse,  set  down  in  his  tenth  chapter,  are,  if 
we  should  imitate  classical  metres,  truly  of  great  reasonableness 
and  practicality.  But  his  assault  upon  rhyme  was  not  to  go. 


500  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

unchallenged.  A  more  easy  writer  of  prose  than  he,  and  a 
more  able  controversialist,  at  once  took  up  the  cudgels  in  de- 
fense of  the  numbers  and  measures  proper  to  the  English 
tongue.  This  was  Samuel  Daniel,  whose  Defence  of  Rime 
appeared  in  1603.  In  this  work,  as  the  author  with  justice 
announces,  "is  demonstratively  proved  that  Ryme  is  the  fittest 
harmonic  of  wordes  that  comports  with  our  Language."  The 
essay  has  acquired  a  merited  fame.  It  applies  itself  to  the 
vindication  not  only  of  "symphonious  endings,"  but  of  the 
idiosyncrasy  of  modern  verse:  "For  as  Greeke  and  Latine 
verse  consists  of  the  number  and  quantitie  of  sillables,  so 
doth  the  English  verse  of  measure  and  accent."  It  is  as 
smoothly  and  sweetly  written  a  bit  of  prose  as  any  of  the  time. 
Edmund  Bolton's  Hypercritica,  which  followed,  longo  inten>allo 
(1610-17),  is  of  interest  to  the  prosodist  only  in  the  Fourth 
Addresse,  and  there  for  its  curious  and  critical  synopsis  of 
English  poets  rather  than  for  information  concerning  the  rules 
or  history  of  verse.  Ben  Jonson's  Fit  of  Rhyme  against  Rhyme 
(see  Penn's  Hood's  Rhymester)  is  merely  a  jeu  d' esprit.  Dave- 
nant's  Preface  to  Gondibert  (1650)  is  of  historical  worth  for  its 
advocacy  of  the  "  interwoven  stanza  of  four  "  for  the  purposes 
of  heroic  verse.  Milton's  Preface  to  Paradise  Lost  is  the  last 
of  the  famous  protests  against  rhyme  in  English  verse.  The 
list  of  historical  productions  might,  of  course,  be  prolonged ; 
suffice  it,  however,  merely  to  call  attention  to  Henry  Peacham's 
Article  on  Poetry  in  the  Compleat  Gentleman  (1634),  to  cer- 
tain of  Dryden's  essays  as  mentioned  in  §  21,  B  2,  to  the 
Tragedies  of  the  Last  Age  by  Thomas  Rymer  (1692-93),  to 
the  Duke  of  Buckingham's  Essay  on  Poetry,  to  Pope's  Essay 
on  Criticism,  to  John  Dennis's  Remarks  on  Pope's  Rape  of  the 
Lock  (Lond.:  1728),  to  Dennis's  select  works  (1718),  to  the 
works  of  Bysshe  and  Gildon  discussed  above  (§  23),  and  to 
Warton's  History  of  English  Poetry  from  the  twelfth  to  the  close 
of  the  sixteenth  century  (ed.  Hazlitt.  4  vols.  Lond.:  1871). 


§24.1  GENERAL   .VOTE.  501 

In  this  list  it  has  not  been  deemed  advisable  to  introduce 
in  their  chronological  order  certain  works  of  merely  historical 
interest.  Some  such  are  cited  by  Lanier  (Preface  to  Science  of 
Verse):  the  Epistola  ad  Acircium  of  Aldhelm  (700);  the  De 
arte  metrica  of  the  Venerable  Bede  ;  or,  coming  down  to  the 
last  two  centuries,  Goldsmith's  Essay  on  Poetry,  Complete 
Works  (ed.  by  Prior.  4  vols.  Lond.  :  1837),  vol.  I,  pp.  250- 
322  ;  pp.  557-566  Preface  to  the  Beauties  of  English  Poetry; 
vol.  IV,  pp.  345—498  Criticism  relating  to  Poetry  and  the  Belles 
Lettres  ;  Sheridan's  Art  of  Reading  ;  Steele's  Prosodia  Ratio- 
nalis  ;  Chapman's  Music  of  Language  ;  and  Harris's  Discourse. 
Mitford's  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Harmony  in  Language, 
1804,  is  of  more  value  than  other  treatises  of  that  time.  (For 
criticism,  see  Lanier,  Preface,  pp.  xii,  xiii.)  For  later  author- 
ities, see  §  23,  and  for  writers  on  English  poetics,  see  §  21, 
B  2,  above. 

3.  ON  EARLY  ENGLISH  VERSIFICATION,  see  J.  H.  Schipper, 
Altenglische  Metrik,  as  above,  §  23;  also  the  bibliography 
given  by  him,  p.  40  et  seq.  of  that  work.  Schipper  makes  spe- 
cial reference  to  Schubert's  De  Anglo-Saxonum  arte  metrica ; 
Vetter's  Zum  Muspilli  und  zurgermanischen  Alliterationspoesie  ; 
K.  Hildebrand's  Verstheilung  d.  Edda  (Hopfner's  u.  Zacher's 
Zeitschrift,  Ergzbd.,  pp.  74-139);  Max  Rieger's  Alt- und  angel- 
sachsische  Verskunst  (Halle  :  1876)  ;  C.  F.  Koch's  Historische 
Grammatik  d.  engl.  Sprache  (Weimar  :  1863),  Bd.  I,  pp.  149- 
170  ;  and  to  the  best  English  editions  of  Old  English  poetry. 
An  essay  which  has  marked  an  epoch  in  the  history  of  metrical 
research  is  Sievers's  Zur  Rhythmik  d.  german.  Alliterations- 
verses,  Paul  and  Braune's  Beitrage,  Bd.  X,  pp.  209-314,  451- 
545  (see  also  Bd.  XII).  See  also  Kluge's  Geschichte  des 
Reimes  im  Altgermanischen  in  Paul  and  Braune's  Beitrage, 
Bd.  IX  ;  W.  W.  Skeat's  Essay  on  Alliterative  Poetry  (Percy 
Folio  MS.,  vol.  Ill,  ed.  Hales  and  Furnivall);  Guest,  as  in 
§  23 ;  K.  Luick,  Zur  altengl.  u.  altsachs.  Metrik  (Schwell- 


502  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

vers  u.  Normalvers,  Allit.  u.  Versrhythmus)  in  Paul  and 
Braune's  Beitrage,  Bd.  XV,  p.  441 ;  John  Lawrence,  chapters  on 
Alliterative  Verse  (Lond.  :  1893.  i.  Metrical  Pointing  in  Cod. 
Junius  XI  :  its  Relations  to  Theories  of  Old  English  Verse- 
Structure  ;  2.  Crossed  Alliteration  ;  3.  Vowel  Alliteration  in  the 
1 4th  cent,  compared  with  that  of  Beowulf);  F.  B.  Gummere,  The 
Translation  of  Beowulf  and  the  Relation  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
English  Verse,  Am.  Jour.  Philol.,  vol.  VII,  p.  46. 

Beginners  are  referred  to  Bright's  Anglo-Saxon  Reader, 
Appendix  II  (N.  Y.  :  1891)  ;  Cook's  First  Book  in  Old  English, 
pp.  108—120  Prosody  (Boston:  1894);  O.  L.  Triggs  in  Mac- 
Lean's  Old  and  Middle  English  Reader,  pp.  Ixv-lxxiv  (Lond. 
and  N.  Y.  :  1893). 

4.  ON  THE  VERSE  OF  MIDDLE  AND  MODERN  ENGLISH 
POETRY  the  following  authorities  may  be  consulted  :  Guest, 
Sievers,  Skeat,  Schipper,  as  in  §  23 ;  ten  Brink's  Chaucer's 
Sprache  u.  Verskunst  ;  T.  R.  Lounsbury's  Studies  in  Chaucer, 
His  Life  and  Writings  (3  vols.  N.  Y.  :  1892.  vol.  Ill, 
pp.  296-316  Chaucer's  Versification)  ;  R.  Alscher's  Sir  Thomas 
Wyatt  in  der  Entwickelungsgeschichte  d.  engl.  Lit.  u.  Vers- 
kunst (Wien  :  1886.  Wiener  Beitrage  zitr  deutsch.  u.  engl. 
Philol.}  ;  C.  Knaut's  Ueber  die  Metrik  Robert  Greene's  (Dis- 
sert. Halle  :  1891);  H.  M.  Regel's  article  Ueber  Chapman's 
Homer-Uebersetzung  in  Eng.  Studien,  5  :  349,  350 ;  G.  Konig's 
Zu  Shakespeare's  Metrik  (Diss.),  1888  ;  W.  von  Schotten's 
dissertation,  Metrische  Untersuchungen  zu  John  Marston's 
Trauerspielen  (Halle:  1886)  ;  Karl  Elze's  Notes  on  the  Eliza- 
bethan Dramatists,  2d  Series,  pp.  132-140  (Halle:  1884); 
Schroer's  article  Ueber  die  Anfange  d.  Blankverses  in  Engl., 
Anglia,  4:1;  Em.  Penner,  Herrig's  Archiv,  85  :  269  Metrische 
Untersuchungen  zu  George  Peele  ;  Cornh.  15  :  620  Blank  Verse  ; 
C.  B.  Cayley's  Pedigree  of  English  Heroic  Verse,  Trans.  Philol. 
Soc.,  p.  43  (Lond.  :  1862-63)  ;  Hazlitt's  Essay  on  Milton's 
Versification,  in  The  Round  Table  ;  E.  Kennedy's  Lecture  on 


§  24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  503 

the  Principles  and  Uses  of  Alliteration  in  Poetry,  Dublin  After- 
noon Lectures  on  Literature  and  Art  (3  vols.  Lond.  :  1866), 
vol.  Ill,  pp.  89-128  ;  W.  E.  Mead's  Versification  of  Pope  in  its 
Relations  to  the  Eighteenth  Century  (Dissert.  Leipz.  :  1889); 
and  other  references  as  under  the  next  head,  and  in  §  23. 

5.  SPECIAL  ENGLISH  FORMS.  —  (a)  Blank  forse.  —  In  addi- 
tion to  the  discussions  under  Mayor,  Abbott,  Guest,  and  others, 
referred  to  in  §  23,  the  following  may  be  consulted  :  Wagner, 
The  English  Dramatic  Blank  Verse  before  Marlowe ;  O.  F. 
Emerson,  The  Development  of  Blank  Verse  :  A  Study  of 
Surrey,  in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes,  vol.  IV,  No.  8  ;  W.  S.  Walker, 
Shakespeare's  Versification  (Lond.  :  1854)  ;  Furnivall,  Intro- 
duction to  the  Leopold  Shakespeare,  §  7  ;  G.  Koenig,  Der  Vers 
in  Shakespeare's  Dramen,  in  Quellen  und  Forschungen  zur 
Sprach-  und  Culturgesch.  d.  germ.  Volker,  Bd.  LXI  ;  Schroer, 
Ang/ia,  4  :  i  Die  Anfange  des  Blankverses  in  England  ;  Hil- 
gers,  Der  dramatische  Vers  Shakespeare's  (1868);  Thos.  R. 
Price,  The  Construction  and  Types  of  Shakespeare's  Verse  as 
seen  in  Othello  (N.  Y. :  1888.  Papers  of  the  N.  Y.  Shakespeare 
Soc.,  No.  8) ;  H.  C.  Beeching,  On  the  Prosody  of  Paradise 
Regained  and  Samson  Agonistes,  being  a  Supplement  to  the 
Paper  on  the  Elements  of  Blank  Verse,  which  is  printed  in 
the  Rev.  H.  C.  Beeching's  edition  of  Paradise  Lost,  Book  I 
(Oxford  :  1890). 

(/>)  Hexameters.  —  Matthew  Arnold's  On  Translating  Homer, 
see  §23;  J.  S.  Blackie,  Horae  Hellenicae  (Lond.:  1874. 
pp.  278-296)  ;  Cayley's  Remarks  on  English  Hexameters, 
Trans.  Philol.  Soc.,  pp.  67-85  (Lond.  :  1862-63) ;  Herrigs 
Archiv,  2  :37o;  Preface  to  Derby's  translation  of  the  Iliad; 
prefaces  to  Crane's  and  Cranch's  translations  of  the  Aeneid. 
One  of  the  most  exhaustive  treatises  on  the  subject  is  Karl 
Elze's  Geschichte  des  englischen  Hexameters  (Dessau  :  1867. 
Progr.),  upon  which  Schipper's  treatment  of  the  subject 
(Neuengl.  Metrik,  i.  Halfte,  pp.  439-450)  is  essentially  based. 


504  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

See  Schipper,  p.  445,  for  some  of  the  best  writers  of  English 
hexameter  verse,  and  Elze,  Grundr.  d.  engl.  Phil.,  p.  375.  Also 
worthy  of  notice  are  Robinson  Ellis's  Poems  and  Fragments  of 
Catullus,  translated  in  the  metres  of  the  original  (Lond. :  1871), 
and  C.  M.  Gayley's  Peleus  and  Thetis  of  Catullus,  translated 
in  equivalent  hexameters  (Classic  Myths  in  Engl.  Lit.  Boston  : 
1893.  pp.  261-266  and  278-281).  See  also  Mod.  Lang.  Notes, 
5:212  The  Inventor  of  the  English  Hexameter  (Gabriel  Har- 
vey), by  F.  E.  Schelling;  Dublin  Review,  N.  s.,  54  :  414 ;  William 
Taylor  in  the  Monthly  Magazine,  June,  1796;  Lord  Lindsay's 
Theory  of  English  Hexameters  (Lond.  :  1862) ;  Fitzgerald 
Tisdall,  A  Theory  of  the  Origin  and  Development  of  the  Heroic 
Hexameter  (N.  Y. :  1889)  ;  and  J.  Spedding,  whose  opinion  on 
hexameters  is  noticed  by  Arnold  in  his  Last  Words  on  Trans- 
lating Homer.  On  elegiac  verse,  see  Blackwood,  59  :  496.  On 
other  English  experiments  with  classic  metres,  consult  again 
Schipper,  Neuengl.  Metrik,  i.  Halfte,  pp.  450-464;  and  on 
quantitative  verse,  Elze,  Grundr.  der  engl.  Philol.,  p.  376. 

(c)  The  Heroic  Couplet.  —  See,  in  particular,  Gosse's  From 
Shakespeare  to  Pope,  in  which  Waller's  part  in  the  fashion- 
ing of  this  form  of  verse  is,  perhaps,  unduly  magnified.  A 
criticism  of  Gosse's  theory  is  made  by  Henry  Wood  in  Am. 
Jour,  of  Philol.  11:55  Beginnings  of  the  Classical  Heroic 
Couplet  in  England.  Consult  also  W.  E.  Mead's  Versification 
of  Pope  (Leipz. :  1889) ;  G.  L.  Larkin's  Scansion  of  the 
Heroic  Verse  (abstract  in  Lond.  Academy,  December  27,  1890, 
p.  617). 

(d}  For  The  Sonnet,  see  Schipper,  Neuengl.  Metr.,  pp.  835- 
886  :  a  most  thorough  and  critical  treatment.  On  pp.  836, 
837  will  be  found  Schipper's  bibliography  of  the  subject.  He 
goes  carefully  into  the  origin  and  history  of  this  form  of  verse, 
and  (p.  878)  classifies  it  as  Italian,  specifically  English,  Spen- 
serian, Miltonian,and  Wordsworthian,  pp. 879-885.  References 
will  be  found  in  the  Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Aesthetics,  pp. 


§  24.]  GENERAL  NOTE.  505 

99,  100,  to  Hunt  and  Lee's  Book  of  the  Sonnet ;  David  Main's 
Treasury  of  English  Sonnets  ;  M.  Pattison's  Essay  on  the  Son- 
net in  his  edition  of  Milton  ;  W.  Sharp's  Sonnets  of  this  Cen- 
tury ;  C.  Tomlinson's  Sonnet :  its  Origin,  etc. ;  S.  Waddington's 
English  Sonnets  by  English  Writers ;  and  to  Rosenkranz's 
Poetik,  Viehoff's  Poetik,  etc.  Other  standard  works  on  poet- 
ics, such  as  Wackernagel's,  Gottschall's,  etc.,  should  be  con- 
sulted ad loc.  A  monograph  by  Lentzner,  Ueber  d.  Sonett  u.  s. 
Gestaltung  (Halle:  1886),  will  be  useful.  To  this  list  we 
append  from  Schipper,  Capel  Lofft's  Laura,  an  Anthology  of 
Sonnets  (5  vols.  Lond.  :  1814);  French's  History  of  the 
English  Sonnet,  in  the  Dublin  Afternoon  Lectures,  4th  Series 
(Lond. :  1867)  ;  Dublin  Review,  N.  s.,  vols.  XXVII,  XXVIII 
Critical  History  of  the  Sonnet  ;  also  55  :  174  by  E.  Elliot ;  L. 
de  Veyrieres,  Monographic  des  sonnets  (2  vols.  Paris  :  1869)  ; 
Quart.  Rev.  134:186  The  Sonnet;  T.  Hall  Caine's  Sonnets 
of  Three  Centuries  (Lond. :  1882).  For  a  comparative  study 
of  the  sonnet,  see  L.  Biadene's  Morfologia  del  sonetto  nei 
secoli  xiii  e  xiv,  reviewed  by  F.  M.  Warren  in  Mod.  Lang.  Notes, 
4:151:  Welti's  Geschichte  des  Sonnetts  in  der  deutschen 
Dichtung  (Leipz. :  1884) ;  and  R.  Bunge's  Zur  Geschichte  des 
italienischen  Sonetts,  in  Magazinf.  d.  Litt.  d.  In-  und  Auslandes, 
1884:  537,  554,  566,  582. 

.(e)  For  Other  Fixed  Forms  of  Verse,  see  Guide  to  Lit.  Aesth.,* 
pp.  99,  100  ;  and  consult  especially  Theodore  de  Banville's 
Traite  de  poesie  franchise  (Paris  :  1881)  ;  Hood's  Rhymester, 
ed.  by  Arthur  Penn ;  Austin  Dobson's  Foreign  Forms  of  Verse 
(in  W.  D.  Adams's  Latter-Day  Lyrics.  Lond. :  1878)  ;  Edmund 
Gosse's  Plea  for  Certain  Exotic  Forms  of  Verse  (Cornh.,  July, 
1877)  ;  F.  de  Gramont's  Les  vers  franc.ais  (Paris)  ;  and  Gleeson 
White's  Ballades  and  Rondeaux,  etc.  (Lond. :  1887).  See 
also  Schipper's  Neuengl.  Metrik,  p.  886  et  seq. ;  and  Franz 
Hueffer's  Troubadours,  Ancient  and  Modern  (Macmillan,  No- 
vember, 1880). 


506  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

6.  Ox  FRENCH  VERSIFICATION  some  of  the  leading  authori- 
ties are  L.  Bellanger's  fitudes  historiques  et  philologiques  sur 
la  rime  frangaise  (Paris  et  Anjou  :  1876.  See  §  23)  ;  Becq  de 
Fouquiere's  Traite  general ;  F.  de  Gramont's  Les  vers  fran- 
gais  and  the  works  of  de  Banville,  Benloew,  Bouvy,  Lubarsch, 
Quicherat,  and  others  cited  §  23  above.  A  discussion  of 
the  old  French  decasyllabic  metre,  cited  by  Mayor  (English 
Metre,  pp.  47-49),  will  be  found  in  Gaston  Paris's  edition  of 
La  vie  de  Saint  Alexis  (Paris  :  1890).  See  also  G.  Paris, 
£tude  sur  le  role  de  1'accent  latin  dans  la  langue  franchise 
(Paris  :  1862)  ;  his  Lettre  a  M.  Le'on  Gautier  sur  la  versifica- 
tion rhythmique  and  his  Le  vers  frangais ;  and  L.  Gautier,  Les 
epopees  franchises,  vol.  I,  pt.  II,  p.  310  et  seq.  In  Curme's  edi- 
tion of  the  selected  poems  of  Alphonse  de  Lamartine,  pp.  139- 
146  (Boston  :  1888),  will  be  found  a  brief  but  lucid  dissertation 
on  French  versification.  Voltaire,  CEuvres  completes  (50  vols. 
Paris  :  1877-83),  has  dropped  various  formal  but  really  un- 
illumined  remarks  concerning  metres  and  rhyme,  some  of 
which  will  be  found,  vol.  II,  pp.  313-325  ;  vol.  XX,  pp.  371- 
374,  561-571.  Schipper's  reference  (Altengl.  Metrik,  p.  88) 
to  Diez's  article  Ueber  d.  epischen  Vers  opens  to  the  student 
the  bibliography  of  theories  regarding  the  origin  of  the  French 
Alexandrine.  See  also  on  the  Alexandrine,  Ernst  Traeger's 
Gesch.  d.  Alexandriners  (Leipz.:  1889,  i.  Theil,  bis  Ronsard. 
Diss.);  F.  Diez,  Altromanische  Sprachdenkmaler  berichtigt 
u.  erklart  (Bonn:  1846);  Bartsch's  Altfranzosische  Chresto- 
mathie  (Leipz.:  1875);  and  Maurice  Souriau,  L'fivolution  du 
vers  frangais  au  XVII6  siecle.  In  G.  Korting's  Encyklopadie 
und  Methodologie  der  romanischen  Philologie,  III.  Teil,  pp. 
278—301,  will  be  found  a  concise  statement  of  the  principles  of 
French  versification,  according  to  Korting,  and  a  bibliography. 
As  a  general  treatise  and  as  suggestive  of  further  bibliographical 
material,  Adolph  Tobler's  Voin  franz.  Versbau  (Leipz.  :  1883) 
is  recommended. 


§  24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  507 

A  commendably  systematic  and  complete  history  of  French 
metric  prefixed  to  Bellanger's  fitude  historique,  etc.,  pp.  v-xiv 
(see  also  Additions,  pp.  2-4),  precludes  the  necessity  of  fur- 
ther specification  on  that  subject.  Beginning  with  L'Art  de 
Dictier  of  Eustache  Deschamps,  1392,  and  passing  by  way 
of  the  metrists  of  the  sixteenth  century  (Du  Bellay,  the  two 
Estiennes,  Fabri,  Dubois,  Pelletier,  Des  Autels,  Baif,  Meigret, 
Fontaine,  Fouquelin  de  Chauny),  then  of  Bouhours,  Corneille, 
Marmontel,  Malherbe,  Voltaire,  etc.,  to  Gaston  Paris,  Pellissier, 
and  other  writers  of  this  century,  Bellanger  provides  abundant 
material  for  research  in  the  history  of  French  versification. 
In  poetics  a  similar  course  has  already  been  outlined  above, 
pp.  428-445. 

Since,  however,  these  books  may  not  be  accessible  to  all,  the 
following  modern  treatises  are  recommended:  A.  Kressner's 
Leitfaden  d.  franzosischen  Metrik  nebst  einem  Anhange  iiberd. 
altfranzosischen  epischen  Styl  (Leipz. :  1880);  H.  Anderson's 
Ueber  den  Einfluss  von  Metrum,  Assonanz,  und  Reim,  auf  die 
Sprache  d.  altfranzosischen  Dichter  (Bonn:  1874)  ;  H.  Schu- 
chardt's  Reim  u.Rhythmus  im  Deutschen  u.  Romanischen  (1873) ; 
Benloew's  Precis  d'une  thdorie  des  rhythmes,  pt.  I  Rhythmes 
lat.  et  franc..  (Paris  :  1862);  E.  d'Eichthal's  Du  rhythme  dans 
la  versification  franc,.  (Paris:  1892)  ;  F.  Diez's  Grammaire  des 
langues  romanes,  3e  ed.  trad,  par  G.  Paris  (5  fasc.  Paris : 
1873-75)  5  Fauriel,  Hist,  de  la  poe'sie  provenc.ale  (3  vols. 
Paris  :  1847)  ;  J.  Bedier,  Les  fabliaux  ;  Lamartine,  Premieres 
me'ditations  poetiques  (prefaces  and  commentaries.  Paris  : 
1860)  ;  Me'moires  de  la  soc.  de  linguistique  de  Paris,  tome  I 
(1869)  ;  Gotthold  Naetibus,  Die  nichtlyrischen  Strophen- 
formen  des  Altfranzosischen  (Leipz.:  1891);  Pellissier,  La 
langue  franchise,  etc.  (Paris  :  1866)  ;  R.  Sonnenburg,  Wie  sind 
die  franzosischen  Verse  zu  lesen?  (Berlin:  1885);  K.  E.  Miil- 
ler,  Ueber  accentuirend-metrische  Verse  in  der  franzosischen 
Sprache  d.  16.  bis  19.  Jahrhunderts  (Rostock:  1882);  H. 


SOS  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24 

Rigault,  Histoire  de  la  querelle  des  anciens  et  des  modernes 
(Paris  :  1859)  ;  Sainte-Beuve,  Tableau  hist,  et  crit.  de  la  Litf 
franc.,  et  du  the'at.  frang.  au  xvie  siecle  (Paris  :  1869)  ;  J.  de 
Boisjoslin,  Esquisse  d'une  histoire  de  la  versification  franchise 
(Amiens  :  1885.  Extrait  de  la  Revue  de  la  societe  des  etudes 
kistoriques,  Nov.— Dec.,  1884).  The  more  general  works  on 
French  literature  and  language  by  Brachet,  L.  Gautier,  Ge'nin, 
Littre,  Livet,  Marmontel,  J.  Palsgrave,  and  Wey,  as  also  the 
Histoire  litte'raire  de  la  France  par  des  bene'dictins  .  .  .  de  St. 
Maur  et  .  .  .  des  membres  de  1'Institut  (24  vols.  Paris  : 
1733-1804),  and  the  files  of  the  Rev.  d.  D,  Mondes,  the  Zeit- 
schriftf.  romanische  Philol.  (ed.  by  G.  Grober),  and  of  Romania 
(ed.  by  Meyer  and  Paris),  should  be  consulted. 

On  the  burning  question  of  the  origin  of  Romance  versifica- 
tion, the  following  are  the  leading  disputants :  Gaston  Paris, 
Le'on  Gautier,  W.  Meyer  (Proceedings  of  the  Munich  Academy, 
1882-86),  Ch.  Aubertin  (La  langue  et  la  litterature  franchise 
au  moyen  age,  vol.  I,  p.  169.  Paris  :  1883),  V.  Henry  (Des 
origines  du  decasyllabe.  Paris  :  1886),  R.  Thurneysen  (Zeit- 
schrift  f.  romanische  Philol.  11:306),  P.  A.  Becker  (Ueber 
den  Ursprung  der  romanischen  Versmasse.  Strassburg:  1890), 
and  Kawczynski.  The  article  of  E.  Stengel,  on  Metrik  der 
romanischen  Sprachen,  in  Grober's  Grundriss,  Bd.  II.,  is  an 
able  review  of  the  discussion. 

The  origin  and  development  of  the  vers  libre  are  ably  treated 
by  P.  A.  Becker  in  his  Zur  Geschichte  der  Vers  libres  in  der 
neufranzosischen  Poesie  (Halle  :  1888.  Originally  appeared 
in  Zeitschrift  f.  romanische  Philol.  12  :  89-125).  Becker  defines 
'  free  verse '  as  a  non-strophic  metrical  form,  with  rhyming 
lines  of  unequal  length,  both  lines  and  rhymes  being  arranged 
to  suit  the  pleasure  of  the  poet.  He  traces  the  history  of 
the  verse  from  the  Greek  chorus  to  the  poems  of  Alfred  de 
Musset.  See  also  Ch.  Comte,  Les  stances  libres  dans 
Moliere. 


§21]  GENERAL   NOTE.  509 

For  further  material  upon  recent  phases  of  French  metric, 
see  H.  P.  Thieme's  indispensable  bibliography,  La  litterature 
franchise  du  dix-neuvieme  siecle  (Paris:  1897),  and  the  same 
author's  doctoral  thesis,  The  Technique  of  the  French  Alex- 
andrine (Ann  Arbor:  1899). 

7.  ON  GERMAN  VERSIFICATION.  —  In  addition  to  the  many 
authorities  mentioned  in  §  23  the  following  are  of  importance  : 
E.  Belling's  Beitrage  zur  Metrik  Goethes ;  S.  Mehring's  Deutsche 
Verslehre  (Leipz. :  1891);  R.  Gottschall's  Poetik,  discussed 
already,  §  21  (see  especially  his  chapters  on  Technik) ;  A. 
Grabow's  Ueber  Musik  in  d.  deutschen  Sprache  (Progr. 
Lemgo :  1876);  T.  Vernakken,  Herrig's  Archiv,  4:52  Der 
deutsche  Vers  ;  H.  Viehoff's  Poetik,  above  referred  to  (Buch 
I,  pp.  3-45 1  Vers  u.  Strophenbau)  ;  F.  W.  Riickert's  Antike  u. 
deutsche  Metrik  (1847)  ;  J.  H.  Voss's  Die  deutsche  Zeitmessung 
(2te  Ausg.  :  1831);  K.  Luick's  Zur  Entstehung  der  Theorie 
der  Schwellverse  (1887) ;  R.  Gene'e's  Ueber  Rhythmik  d. 
Sprache  u.  Vortrag  (Dissert.  Dresden).  Of  works  on  the 
German  iambic  pentameter,  one  of  the  most  readable  and 
learned  is  Zarncke's  Der  fiinffiissige  Iambus,  which,  as  being 
difficult  to  obtain  in  the  original,  has  been  wisely  appended  in 
translation  by  Professor  Mayor  to  his  work  on  English  Metre, 
pp.  197—202.  Zarncke  "laments  the  indifference  shown  by 
German  scholars  in  regard  to  the  metres  employed  by  their 
greatest  poets,"  and  indicates  Koberstein  and  Diez  (Altrom. 
Sprachdenkmaler.  Bonn  :  1846)  as  the  only  Germans  who  have 
notably  treated  of  the  five-foot  iambus.  He  traces  the  metre 
to  the  Provencal,  from  which  also  was,  in  his  opinion,  developed 
the  Italian  hendecasyllabic.  He  cites  (Mayor,  p.  200)  the 
theories  of  the  practice  touching  metrical  substitutions,  and 
the  caesura,  of  Opitz  (d.  1639),  Gottsched  (1737),  J.  A.  Schle- 
gel  (i757),  Wieland  (1762),  of  Klopstock,  of  Herder  (1768), 
and  of  Lessing  (in  his  Nathan  der  Weise,  1778).  To  this 
bibliography  of  German  metrical  criticism  may  be  added  a  list 


510  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

of  authors  rehearsed  by  Minckwitz  in  his  Verskunst  (see  above, 
§  23),  p.  vii.  Dr.  Ernst  Briicke  throws  light  from  the  scien- 
tific side  upon  the  questions  of  accent  and  rhythm  in  his  Die 
physiologischen  Grundlagen  der  neuhochdeutschen  Verskunst 
(Wien  :  1871),  a  work  which  was  reviewed  by  W.  Scherer  in 
his  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Sprache  (Berlin  :  1878).  On  this 
subject  of  Neuhochd.  Metrik,  see  Westphal's  work,  §  23  above ; 
W.  Scherer's  Ueber  den  Hiatus  in  d.  neueren  deutschen  Metrik  ; 
Phillips's  Zur  Theorie  des  neuhochdeutschen  Rhythmus  (Dissert. 
Leipz.  :  1879)  ;  Assmuss's  Die  aussere  Form  neuhochdeutscher 
Dichtung  (Leipz.  :  1882);  Goldbeck-Loewe's  Zur  Geschichte 
der  freien  Verse  in  d.  deutschen  Dichtung  (Dissert.  Kiel : 
1891)  ;  P.  Remer's  Die  freien  Rhythmen  in  H.  Heine's  Nord- 
seebildern  (Heidelberg  :  1889)  ;  O.  Schmeckebier's  Deutsche 
Verslehre  (Berlin  :  1886)  ;  Krauter's  Ueber  neuhochdeutsche 
und  antike  Verse  (Saargemund  :  1873);  and  the  series  of  stud- 
ies by  Belling,  entitled  Die  Metrik  Schillers  (Breslau  :  1883), 
Beitrage  zur  Metrik  Goethes  (Progr.  Bromberg  :  1884-87), 
Die  Metrik  Lessings  (Berlin  :  1887). 

See  also,  for  tone  and  accent,  Schneider's  Darstellung  d. 
deutsch.  Verskunst  (Tubingen  :  1861)  ;  Jessen's  Grundziige  d. 
altgermanisch.  Metrik  (Hopfner  u.  Zacher's  Zeitschrift,  II,  138); 
Reichel's  Von  der  deutschen  Betonung  (Dissert.  Jena:  1888); 
Huss's  Lehre  vom  Accent  der  deutschen  Sprache  ;  and  the  arti- 
cles by  Paul,  Sievers,  Behaghel,  and  others,  of  which  mention 
is  made  in  §§  23,  25,  26. 

On  the  opinions  of  Lachmann,  Holtzmann,  Zarncke,  Bartsch, 
and  Fr.  Pfeiffer,  concerning  the  origin  of  the  Nibelungenlied 
and  the  nature  of  its  strophe,  see  Werner  Hahn's  Das  Nibe- 
lungenlied (Berl.-Stuttg.  Collection  Speeman).  Pages  47-71 
are  devoted  to  an  elaborate  review  of  the  theories  of  conflict- 
ing metrists,  and  will  set  upon  the  road  any  who  desire  to  pur- 
sue investigation  in  this  quarter.  On  the  Minnesinger,  etc., 
the  student  must  be  referred  to  Weissenfels's  Der  daktylische 


§24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  511 

Rhythmus  bei  den  Minnesangern,  and  in  general  to  the  histories 
of  German  literature. 

For  the  literature  of  German  Alliterationspoesie,  see  Ferd. 
Vetter's  Zum  Muspilli  u.  s.  w.  (Wien  :  1872),  pp.  ix— x  (Wacker- 
nagel,  W.  Miiller,  Feussner,  J.  Grimm,  Feifalik,  Bartsch,  Miillen- 
hoff,  Miillenhoff  u.  Scherer,  Zarncke,  Hofmann),  and  also  pp. 
1-3,  where  special  reference  is  made  to  Schubert's  excellent  De 
anglosaxonum  arte  metrica  (Berlin  :  1870),  and  to  Vilmar- 
Grein's  Deutsche  Grammatik.  On  the  same  subject,  see  K.  G. 
Hogelsberger,  Alliteration  u.  Alliterationspoesie  (Progr.  1857)  ; 
Loch,  De  alliteratione  (Halle  :  1876.  Dissert.)  ;  also  Huemer's 
Untersuchungen  iiber  die  altesten  lat.-christ.  Rhythm.  (Wien  : 
1879),  and  Paul's  Grundriss  d.  germ.  Philol.,  Absch.  IX, 
p.  975,  whence  a  full  bibliography  of  the  subject  may  be 
extracted. 

On  rhyme,  special  reference  should  be  made  to  Ferd.  Wolf's 
Ueber  die  Lais,  Sequenzen  u.  Leiche,  u.  s.  w.  (Heidelberg : 
1841),  p.  161  et  seq.,  where  further  bibliography  will  be  found  ; 
also  to  C.  F.  Meyer's  Historische  Studien  (Mitau  u.  Leipz. : 
1851)  ;  to  W.  Grimm's  Geschichte  d.  Reims,  p.  177  et  seq. 
(Berlin  :  1852)  ;  to  Mehring's  Der  Reim  in  seiner  Entwickelung 
und  Fortbildung  (Berlin:  1889);  and  to  Kluge's  article  Zur 
Geschichte  des  Reimes  im  Altgermanischen,  in  Paul  u.  Braune's 
Beitrage,  Bd.  IX,  p.  422. 

On  the  German  vers  libre  see  A.  Goldbeck-Loewe's  Zur  Ge- 
schichte d.  freien  Verse  in  d.  deutschen  Dichtung  von  Klopstock 
bis  Goethe  (Diss.  Kiel  :  1891). 

8.  ITALIAN  VERSIFICATION.  —  The  older  treatises  upon  this 
subject  have  been  indicated  above,  pp.  445-448.  The  follow- 
ing belong  to  the  present  century  :  J.  u.  M.  Wiggers's  Gram- 
matik d.  ital.  Sprache,  nebst  Abriss  d.  ital.  Metrik  (Hamburg  : 
1859)  ;  G.  Barengo's  Delia  versificazione  italiana  (Venezia  : 
1854)  ;  E.  Kurzweil's  Traite  de  la  prosodie  de  la  langue  ital. 
(Paris  :  1864)  ;  Zambaldi's  II  ritmo  dei  versi  ital.  (Torino  : 


512  .  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

1875)  ;  A.  Solerti's  Manuale  di  metrica  classica  italiana  ed 
accento  ritmico  (Torino  :  1886)  ;  R.  Murari's  Ritmica  e  me- 
trica razionale  italiana  (Milano :  1891);  Gius.  Fracarroli, 
D'una  teoria  razionale  di  metrica  italiana  (Torino:  1887); 
Gius.  Finzi,  Principii  .di  stilistica,  versificazione  e  metrica 
italiana,  con  un  dizionarietto  di  modi  errati  (Torino  :  1887). 
For  a  concise  scientific  treatment  of  the  subject,  see  G. 
Korting's  Encyklopaedie  u.  Method,  d.  rom.  Philol.,  Theil  3, 
pp.  663-675,  or  C.  von  Reinhardstottner's  Theoretisch-prak- 
tische  Grammatik  d.  ital.  Sprache  (2.  Aufl.  Miinchen  :  1880). 
An  interesting  chapter  on  the  origin  of  rhyme  may  be  found  in 
Tiraboschi's  Storia  della  lett.  ital.,  vol.  Ill,  p.  354  et  seq.  See 
also  Rob.  Benzoni,  Metrica  e  psicologia  :  frammento  d' estetica 
(Firenze  :  1889);  D.  Guoli,  Nuova  Antol.,  December,  1876  La 
rima  e  la  poesia  italiana. 

9.  SPANISH  AND  PORTUGUESE  VERSIFICATION. —  (a)  On  Span- 
ish metres  the  student  may  consult  the  Gramatica  castellana  of 
Don  Vincente  Salva  (Paris:  1872),  pp.  390-434  Prosodia  y 
me'trica.  Salva's  history  and  rules  of  metric  are  drawn  from 
many  sources,  the  most  important  of  which  will  be  found  in- 
cluded in  the  following  list :  Marquis  de  Villena,  El  arte  de 
trobar  (1433.  See  Ticknor's  History  of  Spanish  Lit.,  vol.  I); 
Rengifo,  Arte  poetica  espanola  (1592) ;  Carillo,  Libro  de 
erudicion  poetica  (1611);  Cascales,  Tablas  podticas  (1616), 
Tabla  Va ;  Gomez  Hermosilla,  Arte  de  hablar  en  prosa  y 
verso,  pt.  II,  lib.  i,  cap.  i,  2  ;  Luzan,  Poetica  (1737),  lib.  2, 
cap.  22  ;  Maury,  Versificacion  y  elocucion  (Paris:  1835),  and 
Espagne  poe'tique,  Prolog,  to  Tome  I ;  Masden,  Arte  poe'tica, 
dialogo  3°;  A.  L.  Pinciano,  Philosofia  antigua  poetica  (1596), 
Epist.  6,  7  ;  Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  Poe'tica,  Canto  III,  notas 
ia,  2a;  Sicilia,  Lecciones  elementales  de  ortologia  y  prosodia 
(Madrid),  Tomo  2° ;  A.  Tracia  (Agustin  Aicart),  Diccionario  de 
la  rima  (Barcelona:  1858;  Prolog.  Elementos  de  poetica,  Sec. 
II,  cap.  3,  §§  1-3)-  The  articles  in  Romania  and  other  journals  of 


§  24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  513 

Romance  philology  are  in  the  main  of  value  only  to  specialists. 
Two  articles  of  more  general  interest  are  Oservaciones  sobre 
versificacion,  by  Cortoza,  in  Rev.  de  Esp.,  vol.  XCIII,  p.  100; 
and  Historia  literaria  del  decasilabo  y  endecasilabo  anapesti- 
cos,  by  Mila  y  Fontanals,  in  Revista  histbrica-latina,  No.  7.  For 
a  treatise  at  once  concise  and  comprehensive,  see  Korting's 
Encykl.  u.  Method,  d.  rom.  Philol.,  Theil  3,  pp.  527-553. 

(b)  For  the  principles  of  Portuguese  versification  reference 
may  be  made  to  Reinhardstottner's  Gramm.  d.  portug.  Sprache 
(Strassb. :  1879),  P-  3745  to  Korting's  Encykl.  u.  Methode  d. 
rom.  Philol.,  Theil  3,  pp.  583,  584  ;  to  Jose  de  Fonseca's  Tra- 
tado  de  versificac.ao  port. ;  to  A.  F.  de  Castilho's  Tratado  de 
metrificac.ao  port.  (Lisbon:  1851);  and  to  F.  Diez's  Die  erste 
Kunst-  und  Hofpoesie  (Bonn  :  1863). 

10.  RUSSIAN  VERSIFICATION.  —  A  clear  and  simple  presenta- 
tion of  Russian  metric  may  be  found  in  M.  Brodovski's  Manual 
of  Versification  (in  Russian.     St.  Petersburg :   1887). 

11.  The  peculiarities  that  obtain  in  the  VERSIFICATION  OF 
NORTHERN  EUROPE  should  not  be  overlooked  in  an  attempt  at 
inductive  study.     For  the   broadest  statement  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  Old  Northern  metric,  see  Vigfusson  and  Powell's 
Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale  (2  vols.     Oxford:   1883).     Vol.  II, 
pp.  687,  688,  gives  a  complete  index  to  all  that  the  two  volumes 
contain  on  metre.     Perhaps  the  most  important  reference  in 
the  Corpus  Poeticum  Boreale  is  to  be  found  in  vol.  I,  Excursus 
1 1,  where  are  discussed  the  history,  classification,  and  notation 
of  Old  Norse,  German,  and  English  metres.     (See  also  vol.  I, 
p.  458.)     A  valuable  passage  upon  the  subject  will  be  found 
in  Du  Meril's  Histoire  de  la  poe'sie  scandinave  (Paris:   1839), 
pp.  63-72  De  la  versification  scandinave.     It  is  followed  by  an 
equally  interesting  chapter,  De  la  traduction  des  poesies  scan- 
dinaves.     The  footnotes  in   this  volume  will  profit  the  bibli- 
ographer.    For  further  information   touching   the    history   of 
Scandinavian   forms    in   literature   the  student  is  referred  to 


514  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

Frederik  Winkel  Horn's  Geschichte  d.  Lit.  d.  skandinavischen 
Nordens,  von  den  altesten  Zeiten  bis  auf  die  Gegenwart  (Leipz. : 
1880),  pp.  11-89  LMe  altnord.  Lit.,  pp.  89-288  Danemark  und 
Norwegen,  pp.  289-378  Schweden.  Nearly  all  important  au- 
thorities on  Scandinavian  poetry  and  versification  are  cited  in 
the  admirable  Bibliographischer  Anhang,  pp.  378-399,  which 
treats  (i)  of  Die  altnord.-islandisch.  Lit.,  (2)  of  Danemark  u. 
Norwegen,  (3)  of  Schweden,  furnishing  references  not  only  to 
critical  material  but  to  the  masterpieces  themselves.  The  chap- 
ter on  Altnordische  Metrik  in  Paul's  Grundriss  d.  germ.  Philol., 
VIII.  Abschnitt,  pp.  876-888,  by  Sievers,  gives  in  condensed 
form  the  researches  of  one  of  the  highest  authorities  on  the 
subject,  and  brings  the  bibliography  up  to  date. 

12.  On  the  metrical  systems  of  the  LAPLANDERS,  see  the 
excellent  and  concise  chapter  Das  Metrum,   in   O.  Donner's 
Lieder  d.   Lappen   (Uebers.   aus  d.  fin.  Zeitschrift  Suomi  2. 
jakso  xi  osa.     Helsingfors  :  1876),  pp.  29-36.     See  also  G.  von 
Diiben's  Lappland  och  Lapparne  (Stockholm  :   1873),  where  a 
chapter,  pp.  318—347,  is  devoted  to  the  much-neglected  study 
of  Lappish  music  and  poetry.     Much  of  von  Diiben's  informa- 
tion is  derived  from  the  mouth  of  the  famous  Lapland  scholar 
and  pastor,  A.  Fjellner.     Other  authorities  suggested  by  Donner 
are:  J.  A.  Friis,   Lappiske  Sprogproever  (Christiania  :   1856); 
Scheffer,  Lapponia  (Frankf. :   1673),  p.  282  ;  J.  A.  Sjogren,  Die 
Gemeinden  in  Kemi-Lappmark,  vol.  I,  pp.  189,  440,  441  ;  J.  A. 
Friis,  Lappisk  Mythologi  .  .  .  (Christiania:  1871),  p.  ibqetseg.  ; 
Weatherby's  transl.   in  Colburn's  New  Monthly  of   Bertram's 
arrangement  of  the  Peivash  Parneh,  or  Sons  of  the  Sun-God 
(see  also  London  Aead.,  Jan.  17,  1874).     Numerous  other  refer- 
ences, as  well  as  original  criticism,  will  be  found  in  Donner's 
Lieder  d.  Lappen,  passim. 

13.  ON  FINNISH  PROSODY,  see  also  Donner,  pp.  29-31,  who 
refers  with  respect  to  Porthan's  De  Poesi  Fennica  (Abo  :   1766- 
68)  ;  to  Lonnrot's  Introd.  to  his  first  edition  of  the  Kalevala 


§24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  515 

(1835);  and  to  Aug.  E.  Ahlqvist's  exhaustive  treatment  of 
Finnish  Metrik  in  his  Suomalainen  runous-oppi  kielelliselta  kan- 
nalta  (Helsingissa  :  1863),  pp.  1-32.  We  have  found  of  direct 
service  toward  the  history  of  this  subject  the  An  den  Leser, 
pp.  v— x,  of  Hermann  Paul's  interesting  verse-translation  of 
Finnish  lyrics  and  ballads,  entitled  Kanteletar  (Helsingf. : 
1882).  One  of  the  most  important  authorities  on  Finnish 
prosody  is  Comparetti,  who  in  his  Kalevala,  German  edition, 
1892,  p.  31,  gives  an  account  of  parallelism  in  Finnish  poetry. 

14.  The  student  of  comparative  versification  will  not  stop 
short  with  the  metric  of  European  tongues;  he  will  examine 
also  such  works  on  ORIENTAL  POETICS  as  maybe  accessible  and 
within  his  comprehension. 

15.  ON  INDIAN  LITERATURE  it  is  feasible  here  only  to  sug- 
gest consultation  of  the  series,  Sacred  Books  of  the  East,  ed. 
by  Max  Miiller ;   prefaces  to  the  various  volumes  (see  espe- 
cially Miiller's  Sacred  Hymns  of  the  Brahmans,  and  Hymns  of 
the  Rig- Veda,  Introd.  to  vol.  I);    Albrecht  Weber's  Indische 
Studien,  Indische  Streifen,  and  the  History  of  Indian  Litera- 
ture, transl.  by  Mann  and  Zachariae,  pp.  182,  183,  232,  233  et 
passim  (Triibner's  Orient.  Series.    Leipz. :   1878).     In  this  work 
of  Weber's  will  be  found  many  valuable  references  to  bibliog- 
raphy.    Also  may  be  consulted  J.  Muir's  Sanskrit  Texts  (5  vols. 
2d  ed.     Lond. :   1868) ;  his  Metrical  Translations  from   San- 
skrit Writers  (Triibner's)  ;  Monier  Williams's  Indian  Epic  Poetry 
(1863)  ;  his  Indian  Wisdom   (1875)  5  ano^  tne  preface  to  his 
translation  of  the  Nalopakhyanam  ;   R.  W.  Gust's  Linguistic  and 
Oriental  Studies,  pp.  60,  61  ;  and  his  other  works  on  Indian 
literature    and    languages ;    and    E\    Lacereau's   Groulabodha, 
Traite  de  prosodie  sanscrite,  comp.  par  Kaledasa  (Paris  :   1854). 
In  general,  much  is  made  accessible  to  the  English  reader  by 
Triibner's  Oriental   Series.     More   advanced  students  will  of 
course  turn   to  the   studies  of  Haug,  Lassen,  Burnouf,  Roth, 
Reinaud,  Stenzler,  Holtzmann,  H.  H.  Wilson,  Burnell,  Buhler, 


516  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

Colebrooke,  Aufrecht,  etc.  H.  H.  Wilson's  volumes  on  Hindoo 
Dramatic  Literature,  while  valuable  in  other  respects,  fail  to 
discuss  the  versification  of  the  drama.  His  Essays,  Analytical, 
Critical,  etc.,  may  be  consulted.  See  also  W.  D.  Whitney, 
Oriental  and  Linguistic  Studies,  p.  6  et  passim;  and  Max 
Miiller,  Chips  from  a  German  Workshop,  vol.  I,  pp.  79-82. 
There  is  an  excellent  treatise  in  the  Asiatic  Journal,  N.  s.,  1837, 
pp.  23-153,  on  the  forms  of  Sanskrit  metre.  See  also  West- 
phal's  Metrik  der  indogermanischen  Volker  (Kiihn's  Zeitschrift, 
9  1437);  n's  Allgemeine  Metrik  (§  23);  and  A.  L.  Chezy's 
Theorie  du  Sloka  ou  metre  heroi'que  Sanscrit  (Paris  :  1827). 

1 6.  A  few  of  the  most  readily  obtainable    references   on 
HEBREW  POETRY  are  Rob.  Lowth's  Lectures  on  Sacred  Poetry  of 
the  Hebrews  (1770),  transl.  from  the  Latin  by  Greg,  ed.  by 
C.  E.  Stone,  Andover,  1829  (see  chap.  I) ;' Jebb's  Sacred  Litera- 
ture, p.  20  ;  Philip  Schaff's  Introd.  to  Poetry  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment in  the  transl.  of  Lange's  Commentary  on  Job  (furnishes 
an  elaborate  metrical  scheme  with  illustrations)  ;  J.  G.  Herder's 
Spirit  of   Hebrew   Poetry  (1782,  transl.  by  J.  Marsh,   1833), 
vol.   I,  chap.   XXVII;  vol.  II,   chap.  VIII;  H.   Ewald's  Die 
Dichter  des  alten  Bundes,  transl.  by  Kitto  (1835-39),  vol.   I, 
p.  83  (this  is  altogether  the  best  article  on  the  subject).     The 
most  complete  compendium  of  the  various  theories  of  Hebrew 
verse  with  which  we  are  acquainted  is  Saalschutz's  Von  der 
Form  der  hebr.  Poesie  (Konigsberg  :  1825).     See  also  the  few 
pages,  415-421,  of  Stevenson  MacGill's  Lectures  on  Rhetoric 
and  Criticism,  introductory  to  study  of  Scriptures ;  Gesenius's 
Lehrgebaude   d.  hebr.   Sprache  (ed.   Rodiger,  transl.   Davies, 
1869-76);  and  the  works  of  Olshausen  and  Davidson.    Schlott- 
mann's  Zur  semitischen  Epigraphie,  V,  VI,  should  not  be  over- 
looked. 

17.  ON  EGYPTIAN  VERSIFICATION,  see  the  article  by  G.  Ebers 
on   Rhyme  and  Alliteration  in  Zeitschrift  f.  dgyptische  Sprache 
u.  Alterthumsk.  15  :  43. 


§  24.]  GENERAL   NOTE.  517 

18.  ON  CHINESE  VERSIKICATION  the  student  is  especially  re- 
ferred to  Stanislas  Julien's  Hoei'-Lan-Ki,  ou  1'Histoire  du  cercle 
de  craie  (Lond. :    1832),  Preface,  pp.  xiii-xxix.     The  discussion 
turns,  however,  rather  upon  Chinese  imagery  than  upon  metric. 
For  examples  of  balanced  form  in  Chinese  verse,  see  Julien's 
L'Orphelin  de  la  Chine  (Paris  :   1844),  PP-  32S-352-     M.  Bazin 
(aine'),  in  the  Introduction  to  his  Theatre  chinoise  (Paris  :  1838), 
traces  the  history  of  Chinese  poetry,  but  devotes  only  pp.  37,  38 
to  the  form  of  verse.     Professor  Douglas  treats  but  meagerly  of 
the  subject  in  his  article  on  '  China'  (Encycl.  Brit.).-    Basil  H. 
Chamberlain,  in  his  Classical  Poetry  of  Japan  (Triibner.    Lond.  : 
1880),  Introd.,  pp.  2-4,  gives  some  definite  information  concern- 
ing rhyme,  tone,  and  parallelism  in  Chinese  verse.    See  also  Dr. 
James  Legge's  The  Chinese  Classics  (Sacred  Books  of  the  East). 
To  these  references  may  be  added  the  following,  kindly  furnished 
by  Prof.  John  Fryer  of  the  University  of  California : 

Zottoli's  Cursus  Litteraturae  Sinicae,  vol.  IV,  pars  Oratoria  et 
poetica  (Shanghai :  1882)  ;  The  T'u-shu-chi-ch'ing,  or  large  Chi- 
nese Encyclopaedia  in  1639  volumes  (Division  V  on  poetry)  ; 
A.  Wylie's  Notes  on  Chinese  Literature  (Shanghai,  Division  IV, 
Belles-lettres);  Sir  J.  F.  Davis's  The  Poetry  of  the  Chinese; 
Sir  W.  Medhurst,  The  China  Review,  4  :  46  Chinese  Poetry ; 
Meadows's  Desultory  Notes  on  China  (Lond. :  1847)  ;  C. 
Gooderich,  Chinese  Recorder,  vol.  VIII,  Chinese  Hymnology; 
The  Shi-yiin,  or  Dictionary  of  Rhymes  (a  Chinese  native  work)  ; 
J.  Edkins,  China  Review,  17  :  35  Poetry  of  Li-tai-po. 

19.  JAPANESE  METRES. —  Basil  Hall  Chamberlain's  Japanese 
Classical   Poetry  (Lond.  :   1880),  Introd.,  pp.  2-6,  furnishes  a 
succinct  account  of  the  pillow-words,  prefaces,  and  pivots  of 
Japanese  verse  ;  also  of  the  principal  stanzaic  form,  —  the  uta. 
There  is  nothing  new  in  the  Encycl.  Brit,  article.     A.  Pfizmaier's 
Die  poetischen   Ausdriicke   der  japanischen    Sprache   (Denk- 
schrift  d.  Akad.  d.  Wiss.,  Philos.-Hist.  Cl.,  Wien  :   1873,  p,  229; 
1874,  p.  341)  may  be  mentioned  at  this  point,  though  it  does 


518  LITERARY  CRITICISM.  [§24. 

not  bear  directly  on  the  subject  of  metre.      Professor   Fryer 
gives  us  the  following  : 

Leon  de  Rosny's  Anthologie  Japonaise ;  R.  Lange's  Alt- 
japanische  Friihlingslieder ;  W.  Aston's  Grammar  of  the  Japa- 
nese Written  Language,  p.  167  et  seq.;  Basil  H.  Chamberlain's 
Handbook  of  Colloquial  Japanese  ;  and  the  article  in  The 
Chinese  Repository,  vol.  X,  p.  214  Poetry  of  the  Japanese. 

20.  ARABIAN  METRES  are  ably  handled  in  H.  Coupry's  Traite 
de  la  versification  arabe  (Leipz. :   1875)  ;  in  Guyard's  Theorie 
nouvelle  de    la   metrique  arabe,   precedee   de   considerations 
generates  sur  le  rhythme  naturel  du  langage ;  and  in  M.  Hart- 
mann's  Metrum   und    Rhythmus :   Die   Entstehung  der  arab. 
Versmasse    (Giessen:    1897).     Those   who   read    Arabic   may 
acquaint  themselves  with  the  extensive  work  on  Arabian  litera- 
ture by  L.  Cheikhos,  published  at  Beyrout  in  1886.     The  first 
volume  contains  the   treatise  on  versification.     The  Beitrage 
zur  Kentniss  d.  Poesie  d.  alten  Araber,  by  Theodor  Noldeke 
(Hannover  :   1864),  is  suggested  as  a  key  to  further  bibliog- 
raphy and  criticism  in  this  direction. 

21.  TURKISH  METRES.  —  See  the  article  by  W.  J.  Redhouse, 
on  the   History,  System,  and  Varieties  of  Turkish  Poetry,  in 
Trans,  of  the  Royal  Soc.  of  Lit.,  2d  Ser.,  12  :  99.     It  contains 
much  translation. 


APPENDIX. 


A   BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  ARISTOTLE'S  POETICS.1 


GREEK. 

Rhetores  Graeci.     Ven. :   1508.     Aldus. 

De  rhetorica  L.   III.  .  .  .     De  poetica  liber  unus.     Graece.     Ven.: 

1536.      In  aed.  Zanetti  et  dilig.  Trincavelli. 
Poetica,  graece.     Parisiis  :    1541.     Per  Conr.  Neobarium. 
Rhetorica  et  poetica.     Venet. :  1 546.     Jo.  Gryphius. 
Poetica  cum  Vine.  Madii  et  Earth.  Lombardii  comm.  explan.     Ven. : 

1550. 

De  arte  poetica  liber  graece,  cum  var.  lect.     Parisiis:  1555.     Morel. 
Poetica.     Graece,  cum  P.  Victorii  comm.  in  librum  primum.     Floren- 

tiae  :   1560.     In  off.  Juntarum. 
De  arte  poetica,  graece,  ad  exemplar  libri  a   P.  Victorio  correcti. 

Florentiae:   1564.     Apud  Juntas. 
Greek  text,  ed.  by  I.  Casaubon.     Leyden  :  1590. 
Poetica.     Heinsius  recensuit.     Lugd.  Bat.  :  1610. 
Poetica  cum  animadv.  Paccii  et  Riccoboni  ac  comm.  P.  Benii.     Ven. : 

1624. 

'Apto-rorcAovs  Trcpi  77-0177x1*075  fti/3\iov.      Parisiis:   1630. 
De  poetica  liber,  ex  vers.  Th.  Goulstoni  perp.  not.  ill.  ace.  integrae 

notae  Fr.  Sylburg.  et  D.  Heinsii,  necnon  selectae  aliorum,  quibus 

suas  etiam  immiscuit  (J.  Uptonus)  editor.     Cantabr. :   1696. 
'A/3i0-TOTeA.ous  TTtpi  7rot^TiKi/s  (Lectiones  variantes    .    .    .    et  notae, 

etc.).     Oxford  :   1 760. 

1  For  the  literature  of  the  Aristotelian  controversy  concerning  poetry, 
see  vol.  II  of  this  work,  especially  under  the  Epic  and  Tragedy. 


520  APPENDIX. 

Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber,  textu  goulstoniano ;  cum  praelectione, 
versione  et  notis  editoris  Guilielmi  Cooke :  accedit  elegia  gray- 
iana,  graece.  Cantabr.  :  1785.  Typ.  Acad. 

De  poetica.     Rec.  F.  W.  Reiz.     Lipsiae  :   1786. 

Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber,  graece  lectionem  constituit,  versionem 
refinxit,  animadversionibus  illustravit  Th.  Tyrwhitt.  Oxonii : 
1794.  Typ.  Clarend.  (Other  editions  in  1806,  1818,  1827.) 

De  poetica  graece.     Rec.  J.  Gl.  Buhle.     Gott.  :   1 794. 

Aristotelis  de  poetica  graece,  cum  notis  .  .  .  edidit  L.  Sahl.  Hauniae  : 
1802.  (With  the  Ars  Poetica  of  Horace.) 

Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica  librum  denuo  recensitum  commentariis 
illustratum,  recognitio  Valettii,  Hermann!,  Tyrwhitti,  Buhlii, 
Harlesii,  Castelvetri,  Robortelli,  aliorum  editionibus  edidit  cum 
prolegominis,  notitiis  et  indicibus  Aug.-Guil.  Graefenham.  Lip- 
siae:  1821. 

Rhetorica  et  poetica  ex  rec.  I.  Bekkeri.     Berol. :   1831. 

Aristotelis  rhetorica  et  poetica  ab  Immanuele  Bekkero  tertium  editae. 
Berol.:  1859. 

Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica  liber.     Recensuit  J.  Vahlen.     Berol. :  1867. 

Aristotelis  ars  poetica  .  .  .  edidit  F.  Ueberweg.     Berol.:  1870. 

Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica  liber :  iterum  recens.  et  adnot.  crit.  auxit 
J.  Vahlen.  Berol.  :  1874. 

Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica  (Vahlen's  text) :  with  notes  by  E.  Moore. 
Oxford:  1875. 

Aristotelis  ars  poetica  .  .  .  edidit  F.  Ueberweg.     Lipsiae:   1875. 

Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica  liber.  Recensuit  G.  Christ.  Lipsiae : 
1878  :  1893. 

De  arte  poetica  liber.  Recognovit  brevique  adnotatione  critica  in- 
struxit  I.  Bywater.  Oxford:  1898.  Clarendon  Press. 

GREEK   AND    LATIN. 

Poetica  per  Alex  Paccium  in  latinum  conversa ;  eadem  graece. 
Venet. :  1536.  In  aedibus  haeredum  Aldi.  (Reprinted  with 
slight  changes  at  Basle:  1537;  Paris:  1538;  Leyden :  1549; 
Venice:  1572,  1600.) 

Aristotelis  de  arte  poetica,  gr.  et  lat.,  cum    Fr.  Robortelli  explica- 


APPENDIX.  521 

tionihus,    accessere    ejusd.    Robortelli    in    Horatii   artem   poet. 

paraphrasis,  et  explicationes  de  satyra,  epigrammate,  comoedia, 

etc.     (2  parts  in  i  vol.)     Florentiae :   1548.     L.  Torrentinus. 
V.  Madii  et  Bartholomaei  in  Aristotelis  librum  de  poetica  communes 

explicationes.     (Text  and  Latin  version  by  A.  Paccius.)    Venet. : 

1550. 
P.  Victorii  commentarii  in  primum  librum  Aristotelis  de  arte  poetarum. 

In  off.  Juntarum. -    Florentiae:   1560.     (2d  ed.,  1573.) 
An  edition  by  F.  Sylburg,  Frankfort :   1 584,  is  noted  by  Blankenburg 

and  others,  but  the  exact  title  is  wanting  in  these  authorities. 
Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber ;  D.  Heinsius  recensuit  .  .  .  Latine  vertit, 

notas  addidit.     Accedit  ejusdem  de  tragica  constitutione  liber, 

pt.  2.     Lugd.  Bat.  :  1610-1 1.     Ap.  Balduinum,  prostat  in  bibliop. 

Elzevirii.     (Republished  in  1643.) 
P.  Benii  in  Aristotelis  poeticam  commentarii,  etc.     (Text,  and  Latin 

versions  of  Paccius  and  Riccobonus.)     Patavii :   1613. 
De  poetica  liber,  gr.  et  lat.,  analytica  methodo  illustratus,  a  Theod. 

Goulston.     Lond. :  1623.     (Reedited  by  J.  Upton,  Cambridge : 

1696.) 
De  poetica,  graece,  cum  versione  Theod.  Goulstoni  et  variantibus 

lectionibus.     Glasguae :   1745.     Rob.  Foulis. 
Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber  .   .  .  cum  notis.       (Ed.  by  W.  Parsons.) 

Oxonii  :    1760. 
Poetica,  gr.  et  lat.,  ex  versione  Theod.  Goulstoni :  lectionis  varietatem 

et  observationes  suas  adjunxit  Th.  Winstanley.     Oxonii:   1780. 

Typ.  Clarend. 
Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber  ...  ex  recens.  .  .  .  T.  C.  Harles.     Ace. 

not.  F.  Sylburgii.     Lipsiae  :   1780. 
Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber.     Textu  Goulstoniano ;  cum  .  .  .  notis  ed. 

G.  Cooke.     Cantabr. :  1785.     (Lond.:   1788.) 
Aristotelis    de    poetica   liber.      Textum    recens T.    Tyrwhitt. 

Oxonii :   1 794.     (Also  another  edition,  ed.  by  T.  Burgess.     3d 

ed.,  1806;  4th,  1817;  5th,  1827.) 
De  poetica  liber,  gr.   et  lat.,  cum  commentar.   Godofr.  Hermanni. 

Lipsiae:    1802. 
Poeticae  Aristotelis  nova  versio,  cum  textu  graeco  haud  paucis  in 

locis  emendato,    auctore   de    Haus.      Ace.   app.   duae   de   trag. 


522  ATPENDIX. 

officio  et  de  dram,  poeseos  apud  Graecos  origine.     Panormi : 
1815.     Typ.  reg. 
De  poetica  gr.  et  lat.  rec.  et  comm.  ill.  F.  Ritter.     Coloniae  :  1839. 

GREEK    AND    ENGLISH. 

Aristotelis  de  arte    poetica   (Vahlen's    Text)  :    with  translation  by 

E.  R.  Wharton.     Oxford  :   1885.     Parker. 
The  Poetics  of  Aristotle.     Translated,  with  a  critical  Text,  by  S.  H. 

Butcher.     Lond. :   1895.     Macrnillan. 

LATIN. 

Rhetorica,  ex  arabico  lat.  reddita,  interprete  Alemanno,  praemissa 
Alpharabii  declaratione  super  eadem  rhetorica.  Excerptum  ex 
Aristotelis  poetica,  ex  recens.  Lancilloti  de  Zerlis.  Venet. :  1481. 
Per  Philip.  Venet. 

Latin  translation  by  G.  Valla.     Ven.  :   1498. 

Latin  translation,  with  the  summary  of  Averroes.  Ven.:  1515. 
(This  edition  and  the  preceding  are  noted  by  Prickard.) 

Aristotelis  rhetorica  ex  arabico  latine  reddita,  interprete  Hermanno 
Alemanno.  .  .  .  Excerptum  ex  Aristotelis  poetica  per  eundem 
Hermannum  de  Averrois  textu  arabico  latine  redditum.  Basil : 

I534- 

Aristotelis  poetica  per  A.  Paccium  in  lat.  conversa.     Parisiis :   1542. 
Ars   rhet.  gr.  ab   Ant.  Riccobono    Rhodigino  lat.   conv.  .  .  .     Ars 

poetica  ab  eodem  in  lat.  ling,  versa.     Ven.:  1579. 
Poet.  Arist.  ab  A.  Riccobono  lat.  conversa.  Ven. :  1 579;  Patavii :  1 587. 
Aristotelis  de  poetica  liber,  latine  conversus  et  .  .  .  illustratus.     (By 

T.  Goulston.)     Lond. :   1623. 

ENGLISH. 

Aristotle's  Art  of  Poetry,  trans,  from  the  original  Greek,  with  Dacier's 
notes.  Lond.:  1705.  (Republished  1709,  1714.) 

Aristotle's  Poetics,  trans,  from  the  Greek  into  English  [by  J.  Willis]. 
Lond.:  1775. 


APPENDIX.  523 

Aristotle's  Poetics,  trans,  from  the  Greek,  with  notes  by  H.  J.  Pye. 
Lond. :  1788.  (2d  ed.,  with  commentary,  1792.) 

Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Poetry,  trans. :  with  notes  .  .  .  and  two  dis- 
sertations ...  by  T.  Twining.  Lond.:  1789.  (zd  ed.  1812. 
Another  ed.  with  preface  and  notes  by  H.  Hamilton,  Dublin : 
1851.) 

Works  of  Aristotle,  trans,  from  the  Greek  and  ill.  with  copious  eluci- 
dations from  the  commentators,  by  Thomas  Taylor.  10  vols. 
Lond. :  1812.  Vol.  VII  The  Rhetoric  and  Poetic. 

Rhetoric,  Poetic  and  Nicomachaean  Ethics,  trans,  by  Thos.  Taylor. 
Lond.:  1818. 

FRENCH. 

La    podtique   d'Aristote,    trad,   par    Fr.    Cassandre.      Paris:    1654. 

(Republished   1675,   1685;    Amst. :   1698,    1717;    The  Hague: 

1718.) 
La  poe*tique  d'Aristote,  trad,  du  Grec  par  le  Sieur  de  Norville.     Paris  : 

1671. 
La  poe"tique  d'Aristote,  trad,  du  grec,  avec  des  remarques,  par  And. 

Dacier.     Paris:  1692.     (Republished,  Amst.  :  1692,  1733.) 
Les  quatre  poe'tiques  d'Aristote,  d'Horace,  de  Vida,  de  Desprdaux, 

avec  traductions  et  des  remarques.     Paris  :   1771. 
Chdnier,  M.  J.  de.     CEuvres  posthumes.     Notice  par  Daunon.    3  vols. 

Paris:  1824-27.     Vol.  II  La  poe*tique  d'Aristote,  trad,  en  prose. 
Racine,   J.      CEuvres  completes.      $e  ed.  par  Aimd-Martin.     6  vols. 

Paris  :  1 844.     Vol.  V  Fragments  du  premier  livre  de  la  podtique 

d'Aristote. 
Egger,  E.     Essai  sur  1'histoire  de  la  critique  chez  les  Grecs,  suivi  de 

la  poe"tique  d'Aristote  et  d'extraits  de  ses  problemes,  avec  traduc- 

tion  franchise  et  commentaire.     Paris:   1849. 
Poe'tique  d'Aristote,  trad,  en  frangais  et  accompagne"e  de  notes  per- 

pe"tuelles,  par  J.  Barthelemy  Saint-Hilaire.     Paris:  1854. 


524  APPENDIX. 


GERMAN. 

A  German  translation  by  Mich.  Curtius  (with  commentary  principally 

taken  from   Dacier),  Hanover:   1753,  is  noted  by  Blankenburg, 

Zusatze  I  :  382. 
Aristoteles  iiber  die  Kunst  der  Poesie,  aus  d.  Griech.  iibersetzt  u.  erlaut. 

nebst  Th.  Twining's  Abh.  iib.  d.  poet.  u.  musikal.  Nachahmung. 

Aus  d.  Engl.  hrsg.  von  J.  G.  Buhle.     Berlin:   1798. 
Aristoteles  von  der  Dichtkunst.     Text  mit  Uebersetzung  u.  Anm.  von 

C.  H.  Weise.     Merseb. :   1824. 
Ausgewahlte  Schriften  des  Aristoteles.     Bd.  I  Die  Poetik  iibersetzt 

von  Chr.  Walz.     2.  Aufl.  besorgt  von  Dr.   K.  Zell.     Stuttgart: 

1859. 
Aristoteles  Poetik  iibersetzt  und  erklartvon  Adolf  Stahr.     Stuttgart: 

1860. 
Aristoteles  iiber  die  Dichtkunst.     Ins  Deutsche  iibersetzt  und  mit  .  .  . 

Anmerkungen  .  .  .  versehen  von  F.  Ueberweg.     Berlin:   1870. 
Aristoteles  iiber  die  Dichtkunst.     Griechisch  und  Deutsch  von  M. 

Schmidt.     Jena:  1875. 
Aristoteles  iiber  die  Dichtkunst.  ...     Ins  Deutsche  iibersetzt,  mit 

kritischen  Anmerkungen  und   .   .   .    Commentare   .    .   .   von   F. 

Brandscheid.     Wiesbaden:  1882. 


ITALIAN. 

Rettorica  e  poetica  d'Arjstotile,  tradotte  di  greco  in  lingua  volgare 

da  Bern.  Segni.     Firenze  :   1 549.     Torrentino. 
Poetica   d'Aristotile    vulgarizzata   e   sposta,   per    Lod.    Castelvetro. 

Vienna  d'Austria :    1570.      Stainhofer.     (Republished  at  Basil 

1576,  1582  ;  and,  minus  the  commentary,  Milan  1827  and  1831.) 
11  libro  della  Poetica  di  Aristotile,  tradotto  di  greca  lingua  in  volgare, 

da  M.  Al.  Piccolomini  con  una  sua  epistola  a  i  lettori  del  modo 

del  tradurre.     Siena:  1572.     Bonetti. 
Annotationi  di  M.  Al.  Piccolomini  nel  libro  della  Poetica  d'Aristotile, 

con  la  traduttione  del  medesimo  libro,  in  lingua  volgare.     Vin. : 

1575.     Guarisco  e  comp. 


APPENDIX.  525 

La  politica,  la  rettorica,  la  poetica  ed  i  libri  dell'  anima,  trad,  dal 

Segni.     Firenze:   1583.     Marescotti. 
Poetica  d'Arist.  tradotta  dal  Greco  nell'  Italiano  da  Ottav.  Castelli 

Spoletino.     Roma:   1642. 

La  Poetica  d'Arist.  trad,  da  Ann.  Caro.     Yen.  :  1732. 
Metastasio,  P.     Opere.      i6vols.     Firenze:  1819.     Vol.  13  Estratto 

dell'  arte  poetica  d'Aristotile. 
L'  arte  poetica,  .  .  .  tradotta  sul  testo  di  G.  Vahlen  da  G.  Barco. 

Torino:   1876. 

MISCELLANEOUS    TRANSLATIONS. 

A  translation  of  the  Poetics  into  Spanish  was  made  about  the  middle 
of  the  sixteenth  century  by  Juan  Paez  de  Castro.  Other  infor- 
mation concerning  it  is  lacking. 

Poetica  dada  a  nuestra  lengua  castellana  por  Alonzo  Ordofiez  de 
Seijas  y  Tobar  :  afiadese  nuevamente  el  texto  griego,  la  vers. 
lat.  y  notas  de  D.  Heinsius  y  las  de  Batteux.  Madrid:  1778. 
Sancha.  (First  ed.,  without  the  Greek,  1620.) 

El  arte  poe'tica  de  Aristoteles  en  castellano,  por  .  .  .  Jos.  Goya  y 
Muniain.  Madrid  :  1798.  Cano. 

A  poetica  d'Arist.  trag.  em  portugueza  lengoa.      Lisboa  :   1779. 

Aristoteles  Verhandeling  over  de  Dichtkunst,  waar  agter  eenige  Ver- 
handeling  over  de  Dichtkunst  en  het  Toneel  .  .  .  door  M.  C. 
Curtis.  Amsterdam  :  1780. 

Aristoteles  om  Digtekunsten,  overs,  af  Busch.     Copenhagen:   1780. 


INDEX. 


[The  reference  is  to  pages.  Italic  numerals  indicate  a  reference  in  which  the 
bibliographical  details  are  fairly  complete.  Bold-face  figures  indicate  that  the 
work  in  question  is  found  in  one  of  the  sections  headed  "References."] 


Abbott,  E.  A.,  452, 454,  503 ;  Shakes- 
pearian Grammar,  459. 

Abbott,  E.  A.,  and  J.  R.  Seeley,  Eng- 
lish Lessons  for  English  People, 
452,  454,  455,  457,  459. 

Abbott,  Evelyn,  Hellenica,  132. 

Abelard,  159. 

Academy,  French,  432. 

Accent,  453. 

Acron,  Helenius,  381. 

Adams  and  Cleveland,  Handbook 
of  Am.  Lit.,  378. 

Adams,  C.,  history  of  aesthetics,  in 
Grande  Encyclopedic,  169. 

Adams,  C.  K.,  The  Study  of  His- 
tory, 48. 

Adams,  J.  C.,  Literary  Log-Rolling, 
50- 

Adams,  J.  Q.,  Lectures  on  Rhetoric 
and  Oratory,  235. 

Adams,  W.  D.,  Latter-Day  Lyrics, 

505- 

Addison,  Jos.,  232,  393,  410,  419, 
433;  The  Drummer,  413;  papers 
on  Paradise  Lost,  384;  Pleasures 
of  the  Imagination,  380, 405;  Spec- 
tator, 407,  408. 

Aesthetic  pleasure,  Definition  of,  88. 


Aesthetic  value,  85. 

Aesthetic  worth  of  literature,  361, 
362. 

Aesthetics,  Danish,  107 ;  Dutch, 
107;  English,  130,  131;  French, 
134;  German,  127-129,  132-134; 
Greek,  126,  127,  131,  132;  prin- 
ciples of,  80-171. 

Aesthetics,  Problems  of,  81-87; 
physiological  problems,  81-83; 
psychological  problems,  83,  84; 
social  problems,  84-86 ;  specu- 
lative problems,  86,  87. 

Aesthetics,  Russian,  107. 

Ahlqvist,  Aug.  E.,  Suomalainen 
runous-oppi  kielelliselta  kanaka, 

5'5- 

Ainger,  A.,  Charles  Lamb,  g. 
Akenside,    M.,    434;    Pleasures    of 

the  Imagination,  410. 
Albert,  Paul,  372,  444;    La  littera- 

ture  fran9aise  au   XVIIe   siecle, 

365- 
Aldhelm,    492;    Epistola   ad   Acir- 

cium,  501. 

Alembert,  J.  L.  d',  Eloges,  437. 
Alexander,  Concerning  Figures,  235. 
Alexander,  Sir  Wm.,  Anacrisis,  395. 


527 


528 


INDEX. 


Alison,  A.,  130,  135;  Essays  on  the 
Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste,  87. 

Allen,  F.  D.,  Greek  Versification 
in  Inscriptions,  494;  Origin  of 
Homeric  Metre,  494. 

Allen,  G.,  173;  The  Color  Sense, 
88;  Decay  of  Criticism,  10,  61  ; 
Aesthetic  Evolution  in  Man,  88; 
Falling  in  Love  (The  Recipe  for 
Genius),  138 ;  Origin  of  the  Sense 
of  Symmetry,  88;  Origin  of  the 
Sublime,  88,  137;  Physiological 
Aesthetics,  88,  131,  180,  181,  294. 

Allen,  J.   L.,  Caterpillar  Criticism, 

Allingham,  Varieties  in  Prose  (Curi- 
osities of  criticism),  49. 
Alscher,  R.,  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  in 

der    Entwickelungsgeschichte    d. 

engl.  Lit.  u.  Verskunst,  502. 
Altmuller,  C.,  Der  Zweck  d.  schonen 

Kunst,  97,  /j/. 
American    Literature,    History    of, 

377-378. 

Amiel,  H.  F.,  Journal  intime,  51. 
Ampere,  J.  J.,  373,  444;   Melanges 

d'histoire  litteraire  et  de  littera- 

ture,  278. 
Amsel,  G.,  De  vi  atque  indole  rhyth- 

morum  quid  veteres  judicaverint, 

493- 

Analytic  criticism,  75. 
Ancheres,  Daniel  d',  Tyr  et  Sidon, 

431- 

Ancona,  A.  d',  Studi  di  critica,  46. 
Anderson,  H.,  Ueber  den  Einfluss 

von  Metrum,  Assonanz,  und  Reim, 

5°7- 

Andre,  P.,  Traite  sur  le  beau,  129. 
Andrews,  E.  B.,  Brief  Institutes  of 

General  History,  48. 


Andrews,  History  of  British  Jour- 
nalism, 406. 

Angell,  Jas.  B.,  Influence  of  English 
Literature  on  the  French,  276; 
Influence  of  English  Literature  on 
the  German,  276. 

Aquila  Romanus,  235. 

Arber,  Reprints,  390. 

Archer,  \V.,  About  the  Theatre  (Eng- 
lish of  Critics),  j/;  on  Moulton's 
theories,  29. 

Arendt,  H.,  Die  Metaphern  in  den 
dramatischen  Werken  Corneilles, 

235- 

Areopagus,  385,  430,  497. 

Arges,  Henri  d',  on  the  plastic  arts 
and  literature,  in  the  Grande  En- 
cyclopedic, 169. 

Aristides,  treatise  on  music,  489. 

Aristophanes  of  Byzantium,  489. 

Aristotle,  232,  418,  419,  433;  The 
Metaphysics,  89,  127;  The  Nico- 
machean  Ethics,  89 ;  Poetics,  89, 
127,  235,  271,  294,  460  (see  also 
Appendix);  on  communal  aspect 
of  poetry,  269 ;  on  poetry,  287 ; 
Psychology,  127;  on  relation  of 
nature  and  art,  145-1 57  ;  Rhetoric, 
89,  127,  235. 

Aristoxenus,  157,  489. 

Arminius,  H.,  Die  Tropen  und  Figu- 
ren,  233. 

Arnold  M.,  2,  44,  56,  232,  383,  393, 
417,  419,  422,  443,  455;  his  defi- 
nition of  literature,  200 ;  his  defi- 
nition of  poetry,  288  ;  Discourses 
in  America,  203,  211;  on  Eng- 
lish criticism,  33 ;  Essays  in  Criti- 
cism, 10, 212 ;  Essays  in  Criticism, 
2d  series,  296 ;  on  the  function 
of  critics,  58 ;  Introduction  to 


INDEX. 


529 


Ward's  English  Poets,  212,  344  ; 
Last  Words  on  Translating 
Homer,  460,  504  ;  Mixed  Essays, 
212,  239  ;  On  Translating  Homer, 
207, 460,  503;  Sainte-Beuve,  n,  36; 
The  Touchstones  of  Poetry,  297. 

Arnold,  Thos.,  377,  452 ;  Manual 
of  English  Literature,  201,  212; 
Manual  of  English  Literature  (Ap- 
pendix on  English  Metres),  460. 

Arre'at,  L.,  130;  on  Hennequin's  La 
crit.  scientifique,  21 ;  Psychologie 
du  Peintre,  166. 

Art  Criticism,  49. 

Art,  Decay  of,  181,  182  ;  Develop- 
ment of,  172-199;  Fundamental 
Problems  of,  81  ;  Origin  of,  173- 
176;  Relation  of  Literature  to, 
202  ;  Relation  of,  to  Nature,  139- 
163;  Theory  of,  80-171 ;  Theory 
of,  Courses  of  study  in,  121-135; 
Works  of,  85,  86. 

Art-germ,  The,  182. 

Artieda,  A  ndr.  Rey  de,Discursos,  449. 

Artists  and  Art  Criticism,  49. 

Artists  as  Critics,  49. 

Arts,  Origin  of  the  Several,  180. 

Ascham,  392 ;  The  Scholemaster, 
389,  496. 

Assmuss,  Die  aussere  Form  neu- 
hochdeutscher  Dichtung,  510. 

Ast,  Grundriss  der  Philologie,  369. 

Aston,  W.,  Grammar  of  the  Japa- 
nese Written  Language,  518. 

Atterbury,  Bishop,  396. 

Aubertin,  Ch.,  371,  373,  444;  La 
langue  et  la  litterature  fran9aise 
au  moyen  age,  508 ;  Les  origines  de 
la  langue  et  de  la  poesie  franfaise, 
372;  La  versification  fran9aise  et 
ses  nouveaux  theoriciens,  460. 


Aufrecht,  516. 

Augier,  fimile,  444. 

Aurevilly,  J.  Barbey  d',  Les  ridicules 
du  temps  (criticism),^. 

Austin,  A.,  44,  418  ;  Old  and  New 
Canons  of  Criticism  in  Poetry, 
297;  his  view  of  poetry,  288  ; 
Prince  Lucifer  (on  the  End  and 
Limits  of  Objective  Poetry),  297  ; 
The  Human  Tragedy  (Position 
and  Prospects  of  Poetry),  297; 
on  Sainte-Beuve,  36. 

Austin  and  Ralph,  Lives  of  the 
Poets  Laureate  of  England,  j/6. 

Authenticity  of  literary  monuments, 

354,  355- 

Author,  The,  210. 

Aytoun,  W.  E.,  Firmilian,  417. 

Azam,  Hypnotisme  et  double  con- 
science, 291. 

Azarias,  Brother,  The  Philosophy  of 
Literature,  201,  212,  277. 

Bachmann,  F.,  Schusters  Lehrbuch 
der  Poetik,  427. 

Bacon,  Francis,  130,  232,  393,  394, 
395,  410,  415,  419,  427,  453;  Ad- 
vancement of  Learning,  392;  On 
Poetry,  286,  287;  Works  (on 
poetry),  299. 

Bagehot,  W.,  44,  418;  Edinburgh 
Reviewers,  288 ;  Literary  Studies 
(The  First  Edinburgh  Reviewers), 
61,  204,  213,  299. 

Bahr,  370,  452  ;  Geschichte  d.  rom. 
Litt,  490. 

Ba'if,  429,  507. 

Bailey,  J.  C.,  A  Plea  for  Critics,  j-/. 

Bailey,  P.  J.,  his  characterization  of 
poetry,  280. 

Bain,    A.,   166;    Emotions  and  the 


530 


INDEX. 


Will,  91,  (imitation)  162  ;  English 
Composition  and  Rhetoric,  236, 
347;  on  figures,  235;  Mental 
Science,  91,  131  ;  On  Poetry,  288  ; 
The  Senses  and  the  Intellect,  91 ; 
On  Teaching  English,  211,  213, 
299- 

Bainton,  Art  of  Authorship,  210. 

Baker,  416. 

Baldwin,  J.  M.,  451  ;  Appendix  to 
Raymond's  Art  in  Theory  (on  the 
sense  of  beauty),  169 ;  Internal 
Speech  and  Song,  233 ;  Psychol- 
ogy* l&7  i  Social  and  Ethical 
Interpretations,  173,  288. 

Bale,  John,  384;  Illustrium  majoris 
britanniae  scriptorum  summari- 
um,  384,  note. 

Ballad,  Origin  of  the,  267. 

Ballet,  G.,  Le  langage  interieur,  206, 
213. 

Banville,  T.  de,  506 ;  Petit  traite  de 
poesie  franpaise,  460, 505. 

Baour-Lormian,  Poesies  ossiani- 
ques,  441. 

Barengo,  G.,  Delia  versificazione 
italiana,  jn. 

Barham,  Thos.  Foster,  On  Metrical 
Time,  or  the  Rhythm  of  Verse, 
Ancient  and  Modern,  461. 

Barnhardy,  Grundriss  d.  rom.  Litt., 
490. 

Barni,  J.,  Translation  of  Kant's 
Critique  of  Judgment,  104. 

Barry,  Sir  Redmond,  On  Music  and 
Poetry,  348. 

Barta,  F.,  Ueber  die  auf  d.  Dicht- 
kunst  beziiglichen  Ausdriicke  bei 
d.  romischen  Dichtern,  159. 

Barthel,  Die  deutsche  Nat.-Litt., 
375- 


Bartoli,  A.,  I  migliori  libri  italiani, 
46. 

Bartsch,  371,  491,  511,  513;  Alt- 
franzosische  Chrestomathie,  506. 

Barzellatti,  G.,  Francesco  De  Sanc- 
tis,  53. 

Bascom,  J.,  Aesthetics,  126,  213  ; 
Philosophy  of  English  Literature, 
61,  201,  204,  250;  Philosophy  of 
Rhetoric,  236,  348. 

Bastian,  Masken  und  Maskereien, 
271. 

Bates,  Arlo,  Talks  on  Literature, 
213;  Talks  on  Writing  English, 
236. 

Bates,  Katherine  Lee,  American 
Literature,  378. 

Bateson,  Miss,  contributions  to 
Traill's  Social  England,  407. 

Batteux,  L'Abbe  Charles,  449;  Ana- 
lyse de  la  poetique  d'Aristote, 
437 ;  Les  beaux  arts  reduits  a  un 
meme  principe,  129,  436;  Quatre 
memoires,  437  ;  Les  quatre  poe- 
tiques  d'Aristote,  d'Horace,  de 
Vida,  et  de  Despreaux,  300,  381, 
437 »  Traite  des  beaux  arts  (imi- 
tation), 1 60. 

Bauer,  J.,  Das  Bild  in  der  Sprache, 
236. 

Baumgart,  IL,  Handbuch  der  Poetik, 
300. 

Baumgarten,  A.  G.,  422  ;  Aesthe- 
tica,  127,  160,  423;  De  nonnullis 
ad  poema  pertinentibus,  423. 

Bayle,  65. 

Bayne,  P.,  Essays  in  Biography  and 
Criticism,  115;  Lessons  from  my 
Masters,  115;  Two  Great  Eng- 
lishwomen, 300. 

Bazin,  M.,  Theatre  chinoise,  j/7- 


INDEX. 


531 


Beard,  W.  H.,  Action  in  Art,  168. 

Beautiful,  The,  135. 

Beauty,  85. 

Beckenstedt,   Die   Nachahmung   d. 

Natur  in  d.  Kunst,  162. 
Becker,  K.  F.,  Der   deutsche   Stil, 

•34- 

Becker,  P.  A.,  Zur  Geschichte  der 
Vers  libres  in  der  neufranzosi- 
schen  Poesie,  508 ;  Ueber  den 
Ursprung  der  romanischen  Vers- 
masse,  508. 

Becq  de  Fouquieres,  Traite  general 
de  versification  fran£aise,  461, 
506. 

Bede,  De  arte  metrica,.^?,  501  ;  De 
schematis  et  tropis,  236. 

Bedier,  J.,  444 ;    Les  fabliaux,  274, 

507- 
Beeching,  H.  C.,  Edition  of  Paradise 

Lost,  503 ;    On   the   Prosody  of 

Paradise   Regained  and   Samson 

Agonistes,  503. 
Beer,  De  arte  Aeschyli,  492. 
Beers,  H.  A.,  Century  of  American 

Literature,  378;    Outline  Sketch 

of  American   Literature,  378. 
Begg,  W.  P.,  Development  of  Taste, 

n,  92,  182. 
Behaghel,  510. 
Belinski,  46. 
Beljame,  A.,  Le  public  et  les  hommes 

de  lettres  en  Anglet.  au  i8e  siecle, 

210, 377,  404. 
Bell,  Sir  Charles,  The  Anatomy  and 

Philosophy  of  Expression,  92. 
Bellanger,    L.,    457 ;     fitudes    his- 

toriques  et   philologiques  sur   la 

rime  f ran9aise,  306,  507. 
Belling,    E.,    Beitrage    zur     Metrik 

Goethes,    509,    510;    Die   Metrik 


Lessings,  510 ;  Die  Metrik  Schil- 
lers,  510. 

Bellunese,  G.  C.,  Ragionamenti 
poetici  e  risposte  sopra  la  poetica 
d'Aristotile,  447. 

Belvidtjre,  384. 

Benard,  Ch.,  130;  Exposition  of 
Hegel,  102;  L'esthetique  d'Aris- 
tote,  go,  fj2,  fjf,  157 ;  L'esthe- 
tique contemporaine :  Lamimique, 
162;  Hegel :  La  poetique,  301. 

Beni,  Paol.,  Edition  of  Aristotle's 
Poetics,  382 ;  Platonis  poetica, 
38* 

Benloew,  L.,  506;  Precis  d'une 
theorie  des  rhythmes,  461,  507. 

Benoiston  de  Chateauneuf,  Essai 
sur  la  poesie  et  les  poetes  fr.  aux 
126,  ije,  et  146  siecles,  372. 

Bentley,  R.,  398,  488  ;  A  Dissertation 
upon  the  Letters  of  Phalaris,  405. 

Bentzon,  Therese,  46. 

Benzoni,  Rob.,  Metrica  e  psicologia : 
f rammento  d'estetica,  512. 

Beowulf,  502. 

Berger,  K.,  Die  Entwickelung  von 
Schillers  Aesthetik,  fjj. 

Bergk,  Th.,  370. 

Bering,  Vit.,  De  arte  poetica  natura, 

383- 

Bernays,  J.,  Zur  Arist.  Katharsis- 
Frage,  97 ;  Brief  an  L.  Spengel 
iiber  d.  trag.  Katharsis  bei  Arist., 
9/5  Erganzung  zu  Arist.  Poetik, 
97 ;  Grundziige  d.  verlornen 
Abhandlung  d.  Arist.  iiber  d. 
Wirkung  d.  Tragodie,  9/5  Zwei 
Abhandlungen  iiber  d.  Arist. 
Theorie  d.  Dramas,  97. 

Bernhardy,  G.,  370  ;  Grundlinien  zur 
Encycl.  d.  Philologie,  47,369- 


532 


INDEX. 


Bernheim,  E.,  Lehrbuch  d.  hist. 
Methode,  n,  48,  266. 

Bertram,  514. 

Bertrand,  D'Alembert,  439;  on 
Pascal's  aesthetics,  135. 

Bettelheim,  A.,  Eine  neue  Theorie 
der  Dichtkunst,j./6;  Neuere  fran- 
zosische  Kritiker,  77. 

Betz,  L.  P.,  Essai  de  bibliographic 
des  questions  de  litterature  com- 
paree,  251 ;  Kritische  Betrachtung 
iiber  Wesen,  Aufgabe,  und  Bedeu- 
tung  d.  vergl.  Litteraturgeschichte, 
251. 

Beyle,  H.,  De  1'amour,  441 ;  Histoire 
de  la  peinture  en  Italie,  441  ; 
Racine  et  Shakespeare,  441. 

Biadene,  L.,  Morfologia  del  sonetto 
nei  secoli  XIII  e  XIV,  505. 

Biblical  Criticism,  48. 

Biederman,  K.,  Die  Natur  als 
Gegenstand  poetischer  Empfin- 
dungen  u.  Darstellungen,  163. 

Biedermann,  W.  von,  Zur  vergl. 
Geschichte  der  poetischen  For- 
men,  250,  301. 

Biedma,  V.  de,  Translation  of  Hor- 
ace's Epistle  to  the  Pisos,  441). 

Bielchowsky,  Geschichte  der  deut- 
schen  Dorfpoesie  im  i3ten  Jahrh., 
2.71- 

Biese,  A.,  Ueber  die  Aufgabe  der 
Litteraturgeschichte,  .277;  Die 
Entwickelung  d.  Naturgefiihls  bei 
d.  Griechen,  164 ;  Die  Entwicke- 
lung d.  Naturgefiihls  bei  d.  R6- 
mern,  164 ;  Die  Entwickelung  d. 
Naturgefiihls  im  Mittelalter  u.  in 
d.  Neuzeit,  164;  Das  Metaphori- 
sche  in  d.  dichterischen  Phantasie, 
164,  236;  Die  Naturlyrik  Uhland's 


u.  Mbrike's,  164 ;  Die  Philosophic 
des  Metaphorischen,  236;  Die 
poetische  Naturbeseelung  bei  d. 
Griechen,  164 ;  Zur  Litteratur  d. 
Geschichte  des  Naturgefiihls,  164. 
Biese,  F.,  Die  Philos.  d.  Aristoteles, 

151- 

Binet,  A.,  Introduction  a  la  psychol- 
ogic experimentale,  461  ;  on  men- 
tal images,  292 ;  La  psychologic 
experimentale,  767. 

Binet,  A.,  and  Passy,  J.,  Psychol.  des 
auteurs  dramatiques,  j. 

Bintz,  J.,  Der  Einfluss  d.  Ars  Poetica 
d.  Horaz  auf  d.  deutsche  Lit.  d. 
XVIII.  Jahrh.,  62. 

Biological  principles  of  art-evolution, 
178. 

Birrell,  A.,  44  ;  Critics  and  Authors, 
52;  on  Sainte-Beuve,  36. 

Birt,  Th.,  Ad  historiam  hexametri 
latini  symbola,  461. 

Blackie,  J.  S.,  87,  455;  Horae  Hel- 
lenicae,  joj;  Philosophy  of  the 
Beautiful,  /jj;  Wisdom  of  Goethe, 

3'7- 

Blackmore,  R.,  403,  404 ;  Preface  to 
Prince  Arthur,  403. 

Blair,  Critical  Dissertation  on 
Ossian,  411  ;  Lectures  on  Rheto- 
ric, 12,  236,  348. 

Blake,  R.,  Anonymous  Criticism,  j/. 

Blank  verse,  454-456.     ' 

Blankenburg,  Friedrich  von,  Littera- 
rische  Zusatze  zu  Sulzers  Allge- 
meine  Theorie  der  schbnen 
Kiinste,  380,  445,  448,  487, 
note. 

Blass,  F.,  456,  457  ;  Hermeneutik  u. 
Kritik,  12,  461,  488,  492  ;  Kleine 
Beitrage,  494  ;  Metrik,  488  ;  Ver- 


INDEX. 


533 


schiedener  Umfang  bei  d.  ver- 
schied.  Litteraturgattungen,  369. 

Bleibtreu,  K.,  Letzte  Wahrheiten 
(Das  Genie),  138. 

lilemont,  E.,  Esthetique  de  la  tradi- 
tion, 169. 

Blencke,  137;  Die  Trennung  d. 
Schonen  vom  Angenehmen,  133. 

Bliimner,  H.,  Laokoon-Studien,  108. 

Bodmer,  J.  J.,  412;  Diskurse  der 
Mahler,  423  ;  Vom  Wunderbaren 
in  der  Poesie,  301,  423. 

Boeckh,  A.,  204,  425;  on  classifica- 
tion of  literature,  239  ;  Encykl.  u. 
Methodologie  d.  philol.  Wissen- 
schaften,  13,  201,  213,  350,  351, 
489,  490 ;  on  hermeneutics,  4  ;  Kri- 
tik  d.  Ausg.  d.  Pindar  von  Dissen, 
489  ;  De  metris  Pindari,  488,  489. 

Bohm,  H.,  Zur  deutschen  Metrik, 
461. 

Bohtz,  Gesch.  d.  neuern  deutsch. 
Poesie,  374. 

Boileau,  65,  381,  405,  433,  435,  439; 
Aesthetics  of,  135  ;  L'art  poetique, 
301,  395, 434,  436;  Reflexions  sur 
Longin,  436. 

Boisjoslin,  J.  de,  Esquisse  d'une 
histoire  de  la  versification  fran- 
9aise,  joS. 

Boissier,  490. 

Boissonade,  J.  F.,  Critique  litteraire 
sous  le  premier  empire,  78. 

Bolton,  Edmund,  Hypercritica,  393, 
500. 

Bolton,  T.  L.,  on  rhythm,  138,  461. 

Borinski,  K.,  Deutsche  Poetik,  462  ; 
Die  Poetik  d.  Renaissance  u.  d. 
litt.  Kritik  in  Deutschland,  62. 

Borinsky,  F.,  Das  Enjambement, 
462. 


Borman,  W.,  Kunst  u.  Nachahmung, 
162. 

Bosanquet,  B.,  88,  133,  144,  451  ; 
The  Aesthetic  Theory  of  Ugli- 
ness, pj,  /j6;  History  of  Aes- 
thetic, 62,  90,  93,  131,  113,  122, 
151,  157,  162,  164,  172,  173,  177, 
189,  203,  211,  301,  409;  on  Ho- 
garth, 103 ;  on  the  nature  of 
aesthetic  emotion,  93 ;  on  ori- 
gin of  criticism,  55;  Part  Played 
by  Aesthetic  in  the  Growth  of 
Modern  Philosophy,  gj,  133,162, 
164;  The  Relation  of  the  Fine 
Arts  to  One  Another,  169';  on 
self-expression,  1^3 ;  on  Shaftes- 
bury,  118;  Translation  of  Hegel, 
128. 

Boscan,  387. 

Boswell,  J.,  Life  of  Johnson, 
208. 

Botticker,  C.,  De  alliter.  apud  Rom. 
vi  et  usu,  493. 

Bougine,  Handbuch  der  allgemeinen 
Litteraturgeschichte  "nach  Her- 
mann's Grundriss,"  379. 

Bougot,  A.,  Essai  sur  la  critique 
d'art,  49. 

Bouhours,  507. 

Bouillet,    Translation   of    Plotinus, 

"3- 

Bourbon,  Armand  de,  Prince  de 
Conti,  Traite  de  la  comedie  et 
des  spectacles  selon  la  tradition 
de  1'eglise,  404. 

Bourdon,  B.,  L'expression  des  emo- 
tions et  des  tendances  dans  le 
langage,  233. 

Bourget,  P.,  Essais  de  psychologic 
contemporaine,  208,  214;  fitudes 
et  portraits,  13,  302;  Nouveaux 


534 


INDEX. 


essais  de  psychologic  contempo- 
raine,    214;    Science    et    poesie, 

346- 
Bourgoin,  Les  maitres  de  la  critique 

au  XVIIe  siecle,  62,  432. 
Bouterwek,     Fr.,     Geschichte     der 

Poesie    und    Beredsamkeit,   251, 

3/8. 
Bouvy,  P.,  506;   Poetes  et  melodes, 

462. 
Bowles,  W.  L.,  criticism  of   Pope, 

415;     Invariable     Principles     of 

Poetry,   415;     Letters   to   Byron 

and  Campbell,  415;  Bowles-Byron 

controversy,  287. 
Boyesen,  H.  H.,  American  Literary 

Criticism,  jo. 
Boyle,  405. 
Brachet,  508. 
Brackett,  W.,  Relation  of  Modern 

Science  to  Literature,  203,  214. 
Bradley,  C.  B.,  The   Classification 

of  Rhetorical  Figures,  236. 
Braga,  371. 
Braitmaier,   F.,  Geschichte  d.  poet. 

Theorie  und  Kritik,  63,  424. 
Brambach,  Metrik  u.  Musik,  495. 
Brandes,    G.,    Die    Litt.   d.     igten 

Jahrh.    in    ihren    Hauptstromun- 

gen,  14,  63,  368,  422,  428,  444; 

Romantische    Schule    in    Frank- 

reich,  365  ;    on  Sainte-Beuve,  36 ; 

Study  of  Shakespeare,  422. 
Brandi,  G.  B.,  Trattato   dell'   Arte 

poetica,  447. 

Brandi,  A.,  425;  Coleridge,  415. 
Braun,  A.,  Versuch  iiber  die  Tropen, 

236. 
Bray,    J.    M.,    History    of    English 

Critical  Terms,  383. 
Breitinger,  H.,  372. 


Breitinger,  J.  J.,  Kritische  Dicht- 
kunst,  302,  422. 

Brenning,  E.,  Die  Lehre  vom  Scho- 
nen  bei  Plotin  im  Zusammenhang 
seines  Systems  dargestellt,  //j. 

Brewer,  R.  F.,  Orthometry,  426. 

Breymann,  371. 

Bridges,  Robt.,  Essay  on  Keats, 
418;  Prosody  of  Milton,  418, 
462. 

Bright,  Anglo-Saxon  Reader,  502. 

Brimley,  G.,  44,  418;  Essays,  14, 
302. 

Brinckmeyer,  378. 

Brink,  B.  ten,  204 ;  Ueber  die  Auf- 
gabe  der  Litteraturgeschichte,  230, 
264 ;  on  the  ballad,  267 ;  Beo- 
wulf, 272  ;  on  Chaucer,  385,  note  ; 
Chaucers  Sprache  u.  Verskunst, 
502 ;  Geschichte  d.  englischen 
Litteratur,  377. 

Brinkmann,  F.,  Die  Metaphern,  236. 

Bristed,  C.  A.,  American  Criticism, 
50;  Pieces  of  a  Broken-down 
Critic,  14. 

Brodovski,  M.,  Manual  of  Versifica- 
tion, j/j. 

Broglie,  Le  Due  de,  Malherbe,  432. 

Brooke,  Stopford  A.,  his  definition 
of  literature,  200 ;  Early  English 
Literature,  ^77,  418;  English 
Literature,  214;  Primer  of  English 
Literature,  377,  418;  Tennyson, 
418;  Theology  in  the  English 
Poets,  418. 

Brougham,  414. 

Brown,  Baldwin,  198 ;  on  origin  of 
art,  174;  The  Fine  Arts,  44,  122, 
123,  162,  174-176,  180,  182,  183. 

Brown,  Goold,  454 ;  Grammar  of 
English  Grammars,  462. 


INDEX. 


535 


Brown,  John,  Spare  Hours  (On 
Vaughan's  Poetry),  302. 

Browne,  W.  H.,  Certain  Considera- 
tions Touching  the  Structure  of 
English  Verse,  462. 

Brownell,  Characteristics  of  the 
French,  234. 

Browning,  R.,  455 ;  On  the  Poet 
Objective  and  Subjective,  302, 
418. 

Browning,  Mrs.,  458. 

Bruchmann,  R.,  Psychologische  Stu- 
dien  zur  Sprachgeschichte,  206. 

Briicke,  Ernst  W.,  Die  physiologi- 
schen  Gnindlagen  der  neuhoch- 
deutschen  Verskunst,  462,  310. 
Principes  scientifiques  des  beaux- 
arts,  167. 

Brugier,  National-Litteratur,  374. 

Brugsch,  Adonisklage  und  Linos- 
lied,  274. 

Brunetiere,  F.,  129,  note,  372,  441, 
444  ;  on  the  aesthetics  of  Boileau, 
135;  La  critique  litteraire,  14, 
63  ;  fitudes  critiques  sur  1'histoire 
de  la  litterature  fran9aise,  65 ; 
L'evolution  des  genres  dans 
1'histoire  de  la  litterature,  15, 
64,  178,  182,251;  L'evolution  de 
la  poesie  lyrique  en  France  au 
dix-neuvieme  siecle,  252,  444  ;  on 
Hennequin's  La  crit.  scientifique, 
21 :  Histoire  et  litterature,  ^9, 
jj8,  204,  215  ;  Les  metaphores  de 
Victor  Hugo,  236  ;  Questions  de 
critique,  16 ;  on  Sainte-Beuve, 
36;  on  Taine,  119,  120. 

Brunnhofer,  H.,  Die  Aesthetik  der 
Sprachen,  233. 

Bruyere,  La,  Les  caracteres,  436. 

Bryant,  W.  C.,  45  ;  Prose  Writings, 


303  ;  Writings  (Lectures  on  Po- 
etry). 347- 

Bryant,  Wr.  M.,  102. 

Brydges,  Sir  E.,  Anti-Critic, 53,54; 
Censura-literaria,  j-j,  390,  416. 

Buchanan,  R.,  The  Coming  Terror 
(The  Modern  Young  Man  as 
Critic),  jv  ;  David  Gray  and  Other 
Essays  on  Poetry,  303,  418  ;  Mas- 
ter-Spirits, 16;  A  Poet's  Sketch- 
Book,  303. 

Biicheler,  Philologische  Kritik,  47. 

Biicher,  K.,  Arbeit  und  Rhythmus, 
272. 

Buchholtz,  Griech.  Pausen,  495 ; 
Varro's  Beurtheilung  d.  romisch. 
Versmasses,  495. 

Biichner,  Al.,  Gesch.  d.  englisch. 
Poesie,  376. 

Buck,  Gertrude,  Figures  of  Rhetoric, 
235- 

Buckham,  J.,  Human  Element  in 
Criticism,  51. 

Buckingham,  Duke  of,  Essay  on 
Poetry,  500. 

Buckle,  H.  T.,  427  ;  History  of  Civ- 
ilization in  England,  252. 

Buffier,    Sur    la    nature    du    gout, 

129. 

Buffon,   G.    L.  L.,  Comte  de,  Dis- 

cours  sur  le  style,  207,  215,  437. 
Biihler,  515. 
Bunge,     R.,    Zur    Geschichte    des 

italienischen  Sonetts,  505. 
Bunnett,     F.    E.,    Translation     of 

Liibke,   197. 
Buonamici,  Franc.,  Discorsi  poetici 

in  difesa  d'Aristotile,  447. 
Burger,  Lenore,  412. 
Burke,  E.,  130,  409;  Philosophical 

Inquiry   into    the    Origin    of  our 


536 


INDEX. 


Ideas  of  the  Sublime  and  Beauti- 
ful, 94,  304,  412. 

Burnell,  515. 

Burnouf,  370,  515. 

Buron,  372. 

Burroughs,  J.,  M.  Arnold's  Criti- 
cism, 16  ;  Greek  Influence  in  Lit- 
erature, 276  ;  Indoor  Studies,  203, 
214. 

Bursian,  Archaol.  Kritik  u.  Herme- 
neutik,  47. 

Burt,  B.  C.,  Some  Relations  between 
Philosophy  and  Literature,  204, 
215. 

Butcher,  S.  H.,  147,  150,  158;  Aris- 
totle's Theory  of  Poetry  and  Fine 
Art,  90,  1 44,  152,  304,  380 ;  Some 
Aspects  of  the  Greek  Genius, 
144,  i$t ;  The  Evolution  of 
Humor,  137  ;  Translation  of  Aris- 
totle's Poetics,  127,  note. 

Byk,  Physiologie  d.  Schonen,  /jj. 

Byron,  Lord,  385  ;  Don  Juan  (On 
Poetry),  348;  Letter  to  John 
Murray,  415;  Observations  upon 
Observations,  415. 

Byron-Bowles  controversy,  287. 

Bysshe,  470,  500. 

Bywater,  Commentary  on  Aristotle's 
Poetics,  380. 

Caesar,  Julius,  Grundziige  d.  griech. 
Rhythmik,  488. 

Caesius  Bassus,  Fragmentum  de- 
metris,  491. 

Caine,  T.  Hall,  Cobwebs  of  Criti- 
cism, 16,  49,  65 ;  Sonnets  of  Three 
Centuries,  505. 

Caird,  E.,  The  Critical  Philosophy 
of  Kant,  17,  47,  66,  /<y,  132. 

Callieres,  373. 


Calmberg,  A.,  Die  Kunst  d.  Rede, 
279. 

Camoens,  458. 

Campbell,  Alex.,  Introd.  to  the  His- 
tory of  Poetry  in  Scotland,  364. 

Campbell,  Geo.,  Philosophy  of 
Rhetoric,  236. 

Campbell,  J.  F.,  on  origin  of  poetry, 
267  ;  Popular  Tales  of  the  West 
Highlands,  271. 

Campbell,  T.,  Essay  on  Poetry,  415; 
Lectures  on  Poetry,  415;  Speci- 
mens of  the  British  Poets,  385, 

4i5- 

Campiano,  N.  B.,  In  artem  poeticam 
primordia,  381. 

Campion,  T.,  Observations  on  the 
Art  of  English  Poesie,  390,  499. 

Capriano,  G.  P.,  Delia  vera  poetica, 
446. 

Carducci,  G.,  Poliziano,  46. 

Carillo,  Libro  de  erudicion  poetica, 
512. 

Carlyle,  T.,  392,  415,  440;  Critical 
and  Miscellaneous  Essays,  305 ; 
Goethe,  416;  On  Heroes  and 
Hero-Worship,  201,  215,  305,  348, 
416;  Lectures  on  the  History  of 
Literature,  252,  305,  416;  Miscel- 
lanies, 416;  on  poetry,  284. 

Caro,  E.,  TO,  444;  La  critique  con- 
temporaine,  17,  66;  Melanges  et 
portraits,  /j<?. 

Carpenter,  F.  I.,  386  ;  on  Worsfold's 
Principles  of  Criticism,  232. 

Carpenter,  G.  R.,  Exercises  in 
Rhetoric,  236. 

Carriere,  M.,  128,  136,  426;  Aes- 
thetik,  94,  425;  Die  Kunst  im 
Zusammenhang  d.  Kulturent- 
wickelung,  94,  172,  183,  253,425; 


INDEX. 


537 


Poesie,  ihr  Wesen  u.  ihre  Formen, 

253  ;  on  poetry,  283  ;  Die  sittliche 

Weltordnung,  95, 183  ;  DasWesen 

und  die  Formen  der  Poesie,  95, 

305,  423,  463. 
Carton,  H.,  Histoire  de  la  critique 

litteraire  en  France,  66. 
Carvallo,  L.  A.  de,  Cisne  de  Apolo 

de  las  excelencias,  etc.,  449. 
Cascales,    Franc.,  Tablas  poeticas, 

449>  S'2- 
Caspers,  W.,  Ueber  die  Tropen  und 

Figuren,  236. 
Castelvetro,  Lud.,  433 ;  the  Poetics 

of  Aristotle,  446. 
Castilho,    A.    F.    de,    Tratado    de 

metrifica9ao  Port.,  jij. 
Caumont,  A.,  La  critique  litteraire 

de  Sainte-Beuve,  77. 
Cayley,   C.    B.,   455;     Pedigree  of 

English  Heroic  Verse,  463,  502 ; 

Remarks  on  English  Hexameters, 

463.  5°3- 

Ceci,  L.,  Un'  occhiata  allo  svolgi- 
mento  storico  della  critica  lette- 
raria  e  politica  del  seicento,  79. 

Censorinus,  on  music  and  metres, 
491. 

Ceremonial  origin  of  art,  175. 

Ceruto,  F.,  De  re  poetica,  382. 

Chaignet,  A.-£d.,  134;  Essai  de 
metrique  grecque,  463;  Essai 
sur  la  psychologic  d'Aristote, 
132;  Histoire  de  la  psychologic 
des  Grecs,  131 ;  La  rhetorique  et 
son  histoire,  215 ;  Principes  de  la 
science  du  beau,  7.29. 

Chalmers,  497  ;  collection  of  poems, 

385- 

Chamberlain,  Basil  H.,  Classical 
Poetry  of  Japan,  5/7 ;  Handbook 


of  Colloquial  Japanese,  518  ;  Jap 

anese  Classical  Poetry,  5/7. 
Chambers,  377. 
Chambrun,  A.  de,  Une  etude  d'es- 

thetique,  169. 
Champagny,  490. 
Chapelain,  65,  432. 
Chapman,  Music  of  Language,  501. 
Charisius,  Gram,  lat.,  492. 
Charpentier,    J.  P.,    La    litterature 

franfaise  au   roe  siecle,  66. 
Chasles,  P.,  Orient    (Des   rapports 

du    drame    grec    et    du    drame 

hindou),  276. 
Chateaubriand,      435,      439,      440; 

Genie  du  christianisme,  440. 
Chaucer,  385. 
Chauyin,  R.  P.,  et  Bidois,  G.  Le,  La 

litterature    fran9aise   par  les  cri- 
tiques contemporains,  78. 
Checchia,   G.,   Del   methodo-evolu- 

tivo  nella  critica  letteraria,  253. 
Cheikhos,  L.,  on  Arabian  literature, 

S/9. 
Chenier,  Andre,  Poe'me  de  1'inven- 

tion,  439. 

Chenier,  M.-J.,  373. 
Cherbuliez,  V.,  L'art  et   la  nature, 

163,  169. 
Cheyne,  T.    K.,    Founders  of   Old 

Testament  Criticism,  48. 
Chezy,  A.  L.,  Theorie  du  Sloka  ou 

metre  hero'ique  Sanscrit,  jv6. 
Cholevius,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Poesie, 

374- 
Christ,  W.,  Begriff  u.  Gliederung  d. 

Litteraturgeschichte,     369 ;      Ge- 

schichte    d.    griechischen     Litte- 

ratur,   215;    Metrik  d.  Griechen 

u.  Rbmer,  488. 
Chrysippus,  157. 


538 


INDEX. 


Church,  A.  J.,  Criticism  as  a  Trade, 

Churchill,  385. 

Gibber,    Colley,    Apology    for    my 

Life,  409 ;  Lives  of  the  Poets  of 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  376. 
Cicero,  157,   158,  387;   De  oratore, 

235,  492  ;  Orator,  235,  429. 
Cicognari,  Nic.,  Discorso  di  nuova 

invenzione,  etc.,  447. 
Cintio,  G.  G.,  Discorsi  intorno  all 

comporre  de'  romanzi,  etc.,  446. 
Clarke,  192. 

Classic-romantic  dispute,  287. 
Clough,  A.  H.,  455. 
Coan,  T.  M.,  Critic  and  Artist,  17, 

66. 
Cocondrius,     Concerning     Tropes, 

235- 

Cohen,  H.,  426;  Die  dichterische 
Phantasie,  166,  427 ;  Kant's  Be- 
griindung  der  Aesthetik,  133- 

Colebrooke,  516. 

Coleridge,  Hartley,  Marginalia,  416. 

Coleridge,  S.  T.,  393,  414,  415,  417  ; 
Biographia  literaria,  415;  Com- 
plete Works,  216,  305  ;  Lectures 
on  English  Poets,  415;  Literary 
Remains  (on  poetry),  305. 

Collier,  Jeremy,  376,  395 ;  Short 
View  of  the  Immorality  and  Pro- 
faneness  of  the  English  Stage,4O4. 

Collingwood,  Art-Teaching  of  Rus- 
kin,  417. 

Collins,  410. 

Colmenares,  Diego  de,  Censura  de 
Lope  da  Vega  Carpio,  etc.,  449. 

Colvin,  S.,  49,  197  ;  Art,  95 ;  Fine 
Arts,  95,  120,  172,  182,  183,  306; 
on  poetry,  286. 

Comic,  Aesthetics  of  the,  137. 


Communal  poetry,  267-274. 

Communication,  Instinct  for,  175. 

Comparative  Literature,  248-278 ; 
Society  of,  255. 

Comparative  method,  266. 

Comparative  study  of  method  in 
literary  history,  372. 

Comparative  versification,  458. 

Comparetti,  D.,  Kalevala,  274,  515  ; 
Vergilio  nel  medioevo,  46. 

Comte,  A.,  The  Positive  Philosophy, 
168,  183,  253. 

Comte,  Ch.,  Les  stances  libres  dans 
Moliere,  508. 

Condillac,  E.  B.,  CEuvres  (Du  carac- 
tere  du  style,  Dissertation  sur 
1'harmonie  du  style),  234. 

Conington,  Vergil,  490. 

Conti,  Prince  de,  395. 

Convention  in  the  arts,  182. 

Cook,  A.  S.,  Art  of  Poetry,  301, 
381  ;  First  Book  in  Old  English, 
502 ;  The  Province  of  English 
Philology,  204;  edition  of  Sid- 
ney's Defense  of  Poesie,  J9/; 
Touchstones  of  Poetry,  207,  212, 
297. 

Cook,  E.  W.,  The  Relation  of  the 
Fine  Arts  to  One  Another,  769. 

Cook,  G.  W.,  Poets  and  Problems, 
348. 

Corneille,  507  ;  Le  Cid,  432. 

Cornificius,  Rhetorica  ad  Heren 
nium,  491. 

Correa,  Th.,  commentary  on  the 
Ars  Poetica,  382;  De  antiquit. 
poesis,  382. 

Corson,  H.,  The  Aims  of  Literary 
Study,  216 ;  his  definition  of  litera- 
ture, 201  ;  A  Primer  of  English 
Verse,  463. 


INDEX. 


539 


Corssen,    491  ;   Aussprache,   Voka- 
lismus    und    Betonung    d.    latei- 
nischen  Sprache,  488. 
Cortese,    G.    C.,    Avvertimenti   nel 

poetare,  447. 

Cortoza,  Observaciones  sobre  versi- 
ficacion,  513. 

Costelloe,  Mrs.  M.  W.,  The  New 
and  the  Old  Art  Criticism,  49. 

Cotterill,  H.  B.,  418;  An  Introduc- 
tion to  the  Study  of  Poetry,  306. 

Couat,  Auguste,  La  poesie  Alexan- 
drine sous  les  trois  Ptolemees, 370. 

Coupry,  H.,  Traite  de  la  versifica- 
tion arabe,  518. 

Courthope,  W.  J.,  409,  418  ;  Addi- 
son,  407  ;  History  of  English 
Poetry,  j?j ;  The  Liberal  Move- 
ment in  English  Literature,  307 ; 
Life  in  Poetry,  307. 

Cousin,  V.,  129,  134,  232,  419; 
Cours  de  1'histoire  de  la  philoso- 
phic moderne,  95;  Du  vrai,  du 
beau,  et  du  bien,  95,  442 ;  Lec- 
tures on  the  True,  the  Beautiful, 
and  the  Good,  95,  124. 

Cowley,  A.,  393,  396,  398  ;  Address 
to  the  Royal  Society,  397  ;  Davi- 
deis,  397  ;  Ode  or  Address,  397  ; 
Preface  to  his  works,  397  ;  Propo- 
sition for  the  Advancement  of 
Learning,  397,  398. 

Cowper,  410. 

Cox,  Leonard,  Arte  or  Crafte  of 
Rhetoryke,  386. 

Craik,  377. 

Grain,  Latein.  Hexam.,  494. 

Cranch,  Preface  to  trans,  of  Aeneid, 

SOS- 
Crane,  Preface  to  trans,  of  Aeneid, 

5°3- 


Crane,  Lucy,  Lectures  on  Art,  126. 

Crawshaw,  Interpretation  of  Litera- 
ture,  202,  204,  211,  216. 

Crepet,  Les  poe'tes  fran£ais,  372. 

Crescimbeni,  G.  M.,  La  bellezza 
della  volgar  poesia,  447 ;  Istoria 
della  volgar  poesia,  447. 

Creuze  de  Lesser,  Table  ronde,  441. 

Critic,  Qualifications  of,  8,  9. 

Critical  activity,  Periods  of,  58. 

Critical  theories,  First  appearance 
of,  60 ;  prominence  of,  60. 

Critical  theory,  Relation  of  to  criti- 
cal practice,  61. 

Criticism,  Analytic,  75 ;  art,  49 ; 
biblical,  48 ;  curiosities  of,  49 ; 
Danish,  79;  definitions  of,  1-4; 
development  of,  56,  60;  Dutch, 
79 ;  English,  history  of,  79 ; 
French,  history  of,  77,  78 ;  Ger- 
man, history  of,  79;  higher, 
355;  historical,  4,  5,  48;  history 
of,  55-79 ;  Italian,  history  of, 
79 ;  and  kindred  sciences,  4 ; 
kinds  of,  4,  5. 

Criticism,  Literary,  Types  of,  5,  6; 
purpose  of,  6,  7  ;  judicial  method 
of,  5  ;  inductive,  5  ;  and  creation, 
7,8;  canons  of,  9. 

Criticism,  Masterpieces  of,  43-46; 
moralizing,  75;  musical,  48;  na- 
tional types  of,  49,  50 ;  origin  of, 
55,  56,  60;  philological,  47;  phil- 
osophical, 46,  47  ;  Russian,  79 ; 
scientific,  4,  5 ;  Spanish,  history 
of,  79 ;  species  of,  57  ;  stages  of 
growth  of,  57,  60;  textual,  354, 

355- 

Critiques,  Examination  of,  43. 
Croiset,  Alf.,  La  poesie  de  Pindare 

et  les  lois  du  lyrisme  grec,  489. 


540 


INDEX. 


Croiset  et  Maur,  370. 

Cronet,  488. 

Crousle,  L.,  La  critique  au  icp 
siecle,  Revue  de  1'histoire  de  la 
critique  avant  le  ige  siecle,  67. 

Crowe,  J.  A.,  and  Cavalcaselle,  G. 
B.,  A  New  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy,  184 ;  A  History  of  Paint- 
ing in  North  Italy,  184. 

Croy,  Henri  de,  L'art  et  science  de 
rhetorique  pour  faire  rimes  et 
ballades,  429. 

Criiger,  J.,  Gottsched  u.  d.  Schwei- 
zer,  67. 

Cruttwell,  Hist.  Rom.  Lit.,  491. 

Cueva,  Juan  de  la,  Egemplar  po- 
etico,  o  arte  poet,  espanol.,  448. 

Curme,  (ed.)  poems  of  Alphonse  de 
Lamartine,  506. 

Cust,  R.  W.,  on  Indian  literature 
and  languages,  515;  Linguistic 
and  Oriental  Studies,  515. 

Cyclic  method  in  literary  history, 
352,  353- 

Dacier,  Andre,  commentary  on  Le 
Bossu,  395  ;  Poetique  d'Aristote, 
436. 

Dacier,  Mme.,  436. 

Dallas,  E.  S.,  418;  The  Gay  Sci- 
ence, 162,  308;  Poetics,  308. 

Daniel,  S-,  Defense  of  Rhime,  390, 
500. 

Danielo,  B.,  La  poetica,  446. 

Danish  criticism,  79. 

Dannon,  373. 

Dante,  458;  De  vulgari  eloquio, 
380. 

Darmesteter,  A.,  444  ;  La  vie  des 
mots,  236 ;  Les  origines  de  la 
poesie  persane,  273 ;  Point  de 


contact  entre  le  Mahabharata  et 
le  Shah-Nameh,  275. 

Darwin,  C.,  Descent  of  Man,  135, 
181  ;  Expression  of  the  Emo- 
tions, /j>7 ;  Origin  of  Species, 
135- 

Dathi,  A.,  Libellus  de  variis  lo- 
quendi  figuris,  236. 

Daurat,  429. 

Davenant,  Sir  W.,  Gondibert,  397, 
500  ;  Preface  to  Gondibert,  435, 
note,  500. 

Davidson,  516. 

Davidson,  Jas.  W.,  The  Poetry  of 
the  Future,  309. 

Davidson,  Thos.,  Translation  of 
Plotinus,  113. 

Davis,  Sir  J.  F.,  The  Poetry  of  the 
Chinese,  517. 

Day,  H.  N.,  Art  of  Discourse,  236; 
Science  of  Aesthetics,  125. 

Decadent  Movement  in  Literature, 
444- 

Degenhardt,  E.,  Die  Metapher  bei 
den  Vorlaufern  Molieres,  236. 

Dehlen,  A.,  Die  Theorie  d.  Arist. 
u.  d.  Tragodie  d.  antiken  christl. 
naturwissenschaftl.  Weltanschau- 
ung, 90. 

Dekker,  392. 

De  Mille,  Jas.,  Elements  of  Rhet- 
oric, 236. 

Demogeot,  J.C.,  372,  379,  444;  La 
critique  et  les  critiques  en  France 
au  ige  siecle,  67;  Histoire  des 
litteratures  etrangeres,  253,  275 ; 
Hist,  de  la  litt.  fran9aise,  J7/; 
Tabl.  de  la  litt.  fr.  au  XVIIe 
siecle  avant  Corneille,  432. 

Denham,  J.,  396,  397  ;  Cooper's 
Hill,  396;  Preface  to  Essay  on 


INDEX. 


541 


Translation,  397  ;  Preface  to  Sir 
Richard  Fanshaw's  Translation 
of  Guarini's  Pastor  Fido,  396. 

Denina,  Carlo,  Saggio  sopra  la  Lette- 
ratura  italiana,  448. 

Dennis,  J.,  393,  398,  410;  Advance- 
ment and  Reformation  of  Modern 
Poetry,  397,  406;  Grounds  of 
Criticism  in  Poetry,  406;  Impar- 
tial Critic,  403  ;  Large  Account  of 
the  Taste  in  Poetry,  etc.,  406; 
Miscellanies  in  Verse  and  Prose, 
403  ;  Remarks  on  Pope's  Rape  of 
the  Lock,  500;  Remarks  upon 
Prince  Arthur,  403  ;  Three  Letters 
on  the  Genius  and  Writings  of 
Shakespeare,  408.  ' 

De  Quincey,  T.,  414,  416,  440; 
Brevia  (Posthumous  Works), 
201  ;  The  Collected  Writings, 
216;  his  division  of  literature, 
21 1;  Essay  on  Pope,  211; 
Essay  on  Style,  210;  Essays  on 
Style,  Rhetoric,  and  Language, 
204,  216;  Letters  to  a  Young 
Man,  21 1 ;  Translation  of  Kant, 

!37- 

Derby,  Preface  to  trans,  of  Iliad,  503. 

Des  Autels,  507. 

Descartes,  Aesthetics  of,  135. 

Deschamps,  Eustache,  L'art  de  die- 
ter, 507  ;  Art  poetique,  428. 

Deschanel,  E.,  372,  444;  Physiol. 
des  ecrivains,  18 ;  Le  romantisme 
des  classiques,  432. 

Deschanel,  P.,  on  Sainte-Beuve,  36. 

Des  Essarts,  E.,  Boileau  devant  la 
critique  moderne,  77,  372. 

Desmarets,  435  and  note. 

Desnoiresterres,  372,  444;  Voltaire, 
439- 


Deutinger,  on  imitation,  161. 

Deutschmann,  K.,  De  poesis  grace, 
rhythmicae  primordiis,  493 ;  De 
poesis  grace,  rhythm,  usu  et 
origine,  493. 

DeVere,  A.,  Essays  Literary  and 
Ethical,  253,  309 ;  Essays,  chiefly 
on  Poetry,  309. 

Devey,  J.,  Comparative  Estimate  of 
Modern  English  Poets,  365. 

Dewey,  J.,  451  ;  on  the  aesthetics  of 
laughter,  137;  Outlines  of  Ethics, 
96;  Poetry  and  Philosophy,  204, 
309;  Psychology,  96,  122,  166, 
206,  217. 

Dial,  The,  420. 

Diderot,  1 29,^  436,  490 ;  Essais  sur 
la  peinture  (imitation),  160;  (Les 
feuilles  de  Grimm),  437  ;  Le  fils 
naturel,  438;  CEuvres  completes 
(aesthetics),  96  ;  The  Paradox  of 
Acting,  162,  210;  Pere  de  famille, 
438. 

Dielschneider,  J.  J.,  Ueber  die  Poe- 
sie,  347. 

Diez,  F.,  Altromanische  Sprach- 
denkmaler  berichtigt  u.  erklart, 
306;  Ueber  d.  epischen  Vers, 
506 ;  Die  erste  Kunst-  und  Hof- 
poesie,  j/j ;  Grammaire  des 
langues  romanes,  507;  Leben  u. 
Werke  d.  Troubadours,  371. 

Digby,  Sir  K.,  Two  Treatises  on 
the  Nature  of  Bodies  and  the 
Nature  of  Man's  Soul,  348. 

Dilthey,  W.,  Zu  Goethes  Philoso- 
phie  d.  Natur,  163. 

Dimetresco,  C.  D.,  Der  Schonheits- 
begriff,  fj6,  1 66. 

Dingeldein,  O.,  Gleichklang  u.  Reim 
in  antiker  Poesie,  493 ;  Der  Reim 


542 


INDEX. 


bei  den   Griechen  und   Rbmern, 

493- 
Dio  Chrysostom,  De  del  cognitione, 

158. 

Diomedes,  Gram,  lat,  492. 
Dionysius,  157,  158;  De  composit. 

verborum,  489. 
Disraeli,    I.,    457 ;      Amenities    of 

Literature,   456;  Calamities  and 

Quarrels  of  Authors    (criticism), 

52  \  Curiosities  of  Literature,  49. 
Dissen,   488 ;    De    ratione   poetica 

carminum  Pindaricorum,  488. 
Dixon,  W.  M.,  English  Poetry  from 

Blake    to    Browning,    309,    418; 

Poetry  and  its  Relation  to  Life, 

418. 
Dobson,  Austin,  Foreign  Forms  of 

Verse,  505. 
Dodge,     M.     A.,    Skirmishes    and 

Sketches  (critics),  51. 
Dodsley,   Robt.,  Collection  of  Old 

Plays,  410  ;  Rhetoric  and  Poetry, 

236. 
Dolce,  Lud.,  Horace's  Epistle  to  the 

Pisos,  445. 

Donati,  Eduardo,  496. 
Donatus,  Aelius,  491,  492;  De  arte 

poetica  libri  tres,  382. 
Donner,  O.,  Lieder  d.  Lappen,  514. 
Donovan,  Festal  Origin  of  Human 

Speech,  270,  272. 
Doring,    Die  Kunstlehre  des  Aris- 

toteles,  132,  148,  152,  154,  296. 
Dottain,   E.,  Nouveau  systeme  de 

critique  historique,  48. 
Douglas,  Professor,  on  China,  517. 
D'Ovidio,  F.,  Saggi  critici,  46. 
Dowden,  E.,  44,  372,  422,  440,  443. 

444  ;  on  French  aesthetics,  1 34  ;  on 

Hennequin's  La  crit.  scientifique, 


21 ;  History  of  French  Literature, 
432,  435,  436,  441  ;  Literary  Criti- 
cism in  France,  18,  67,  227  ;  Poet- 
ical Feeling  for  Nature,  163,346  ; 
on  Sainte-Beuve,  j6 ;  Shakes- 
pearian criticism,  418  ;  Shelley, 
418;  Studies  in  Literature,  /6?, 
418;  Transcendentalism  in  Po- 
etry, 418;  Transcripts  and  Stud- 
ies, 20 1. 

Doyle,  F.  C.,  Introduction  to  the 
Study  of  Rhetoric,  236  ;  Lectures 
on  Poetry,  417. 

Dracon  of  Stratonicea,  irepl  ^rpuv, 
489. 

Drake,  N.,  Essays,  Biographical, 
Critical,  arid  Historical,  217; 
Shakespeare  and  his  Times, 

495- 
Drayton,  Michael,  Epistle  of  Poets 

and  Poesy,  394. 
Drees,  H.,  Die  poetische  Naturbe- 

trachtung  in  d.  Liedern  d.  deut- 

schen  Minnesanger,  165. 
Dreher,  E.,  Kunst   in    ihrer  Bezie- 

hung  zur  Psychologic,  166. 
Droz,  Ed.,  La  critique  litteraire,  18. 
Drummond,    Jas.,    Philo    Judaeus, 

'59- 
Drummond,  W.,  of  Hawthornden, 

38S.  395- 

Dryden,  J.,  393,  396,  398,  410,  434; 
Dedication  to  Lord  Orrery,  398  , 
Dedication  of  the  Third  Miscel- 
lany, 402 ;  Defense  of  the  Essay 
of  Dramatic  Poesy,  399 ;  Dis- 
course on  the  Original  and  Prog- 
ress of  Satire,  402  ;  Epistle  Dedi- 
catory of  the  Spanish  Fryar,  401  ; 
Epistle  to  Motteux,  404;  Essay 
of  Dramatic  Poesy,  399;  Essays. 


INDEX. 


543 


500;  Grounds  of  Criticism  in 
Tragedy,  401  ;  Heads  of  an  An- 
swer to  Rymer,  400;  Preface  to 
All  for  Love,  400 ;  Preface  to  the 
Conquest  of  Granada,  399;  Pref- 
ace to  Don  Sebastian,  401,  402; 
Preface  to  the  Fables,  404 ;  Pref- 
ace to  Oedipus,  400,  401;-  Par- 
allel of  Poetry  and  Painting,  403 ; 
Preface  to  Rival  Ladies,  396; 
Preface  to  the  State  of  Inno- 
cence, 399,  433 ;  Translation  of 
Du  Fresnoy's  Art  of  Painting, 
403 ;  Works,  18,  310. 

Du  Bartas,  387. 

Du  Bellay,  J.,  64,  428,  458,  507; 
Defense  et  illustration  de  la 
langue  fran9aise,  429. 

Diiben,  G.  von,  Lappland  och  Lap- 
parne,  314. 

Dubois,  507. 

Du  Bois-Reymond,  E.,  Relation  of 
Natural  Science  to  Art,  /6j. 

Dubos,  Abbe  J.  B.,  Reflexions  cri- 
tiques sur  la  poesie  et  la  peinture, 

43(>- 

Due,  Lucien,  fitude  raisonnee  de  la 
versification  fran9aise,  463. 

Diihr,  A.,  Ueber  Metrik  und  Rhyth- 
mik,  463,  489. 

Du  Marsais,  C.  C.,  Des  Tropes, 
236;  on  the  naturalness  of  fig- 
ures, 235. 

Dumas,  A.,  444. 

Du  Meril,  Histoire  de  la  poesie 
scandinave,  513;  Poesie  popu- 
laire  lat.  du  moyen  age,  494. 

Dummler,  on  the  refrain,  272. 

Dumont,  L.,  Des  causes  du  rire,  777. 

Dunlop,  J.  C.,  History  of  Fiction, 
276. 


Diintzer,   491  ;    Vom    Saturnischen 

Verse,  495. 
Dupuy,  A.,  444. 
Dupuy,    T.,   Melanges   litteraire   et 

historique  (criticism),  j-j. 
Duquesnel,  373. 
Dutch  criticism,  79. 
Dutch  poetry,  375. 
Dyer,  L.,   Studies  of   the  Gods  in  X 

Greece,  254. 
Dynamic  method  in  literary  history, 

366,  367- 
Dynamic   relation    of    literature    to 

life   and   thought,  362. 

Eastlake,  Sir  C.  L.,  (ed.)  Handbook 

of  Painting,  185. 
Eaton,  Modern  French  Aesthetics, 

134- 

Eberhard,  424. 

Ebers,  G.,  on  Rhyme  and  Allitera- 
tion, 516. 

Ebert,  370,  371. 

Ebrard,  \V.,  Kritik,  48  ;  Die  Allite- 
ration in  d.  lat.  Sprache,  493. 

Eckart,  Rud.,.Die  didaktische  Poe- 
sie, ihr  Wesen  u.  ihre  Vertreter, 

347- 

Edkins,  J.,  Poetry  of  Li-tai-po,  517. 
Egger,  £.,  144,  157,  444;  Essai  sur 

1'histoire  de  la  critique  chez  les 

Grecs,    67,    90,    131,     153,    435; 

L'Hellenisme    en     France,    276, 

43°- 
Egger,  V.,  La  parole  interieure,  206, 

217. 
Eichendorff,  Gesch.  d.  poetisch.  Lit. 

Deutschlds.,  374. 
Eichorn,  J.  G.,  379;  Geschichte  der 

Litteratur,  274. 
Eichthal,  E.  d',  Du   rhythme  dans 


544 


INDEX. 


la    versification     francaise,    .507, 

463- 

Eliot,  Geo.,  Essays,  19. 

Elliot,  E.,  on  the  Sonnet,  505. 

Ellis,  A.  J.,  453,  455,  458;  Early 
English  Pronunciation,  463 ;  Es- 
sentials of  Phonetics,  463 ;  On 
the  Physical  Constituents  of  Ac- 
cent and  Emphasis,  463  ;  Quanti- 
tative Pronunciation  of  Latin, 
452,  464;  Relations  of  Thought 
to  Sound  as  the  Pivot  of  Philo- 
logical Research,  2oj,  217;  Re- 
marks on  Mayor's  Two  Papers 
on  Rhythm,  464. 

Ellis,  Havelock,  254. 

Ellis,  Robinson,  Poems  and  Frag- 
ments of  Catullus,  490,  504. 

Elster,  E.,  Die  Aufgaben  d.  Littera- 
turgeschichte,  254,  ^77 ;  Prinzi- 
pien  d.  Litteraturwissenschaft, 
217,  236. 

Elyot,  Sir  Thos.,  on  effect  of  poetry, 
292. 

Elze,  Karl,  425;  Geschichte  des 
englischen  Hexameters,  503 ; 
Grundriss  d.  Engl.  Philol.,  19, 
242-247,  375,  465,  495,  504  ;  Notes 
on  the  Elizabethan  Dramatists, 
502. 

Emerson,  O.  F.,  The  Development 
of  Blank  Verse,  503. 

Emerson,  R.  W.,  Complete  Works, 
20,  96,  218,  312;  his  definition  of 
literature,  201 ;  on  poetry,  284. 

Engel,  J.  J.,  372;  Anfangsgriinde 
einer  Theorie  der  Dichtungsarten 
aus  deutschen  Mustern  entwickelt, 
312,424. 

Engelbrecht,  on  Greek  metric,  488. 

England's  Helicon,  384,  394. 


English  aesthetics,  130. 

English  criticism,  History  of,  78. 

English  poetry,  History  of,  375- 
378- 

Ennius,  491. 

Enzina,  Juan  de  la,  Arte  de  Poesia 
Castellana,  448. 

Epos,,373- 

Erasmus,  D.,  De  parabolis  sine  simi- 
libus,  236. 

Erdmann,  E.,  History  of  Philoso- 
phy,  90,  131,  132. 

Ernst,  A.,  on  the  aesthetics  of  liter- 
ature, /j ;  on  music,  in  the  Grande 
encyclopedic,  169. 

Ernst,  O.  D.,  Gedankenwerkstatt  d. 
Dichters,  166. 

Eskuche,  Latein.  Hexam.,  495. 

Espinel,  V.  da,  Rimas,  448. 

Essen,  Ernst,  Bemerkungen  zu 
Aristoteles'  Poetik,  gi,  157. 

Estienne,  431,  507. 

Everett,  A.,  Tone  of  British  Criti- 
cism, jo. 

^Everett,  C.  C.,  Philosophy  of  the 
Sublime,  136;  Poetry,  Comedy, 
and  Duty,  97,  122,  162,  312;  on 
Ruskin,  ffj,  127  ;  The  Science  of 
Thought,  97;  The  Sublime,  97. 

Everett,  Erastus,  A  System  of  Eng- 
lish Versification,  465. 

Evremond,  Saint,  433. 

Ewald,  H.,  Die  Dichter  des  alten 
Bundes,  516. 

Eye,  A.  von,  Das  Reich  des  Schonen, 
98,  132. 

Fabbrini  da  Fighine,  G.,  the  Ars 
Poetica  of  Horace,  ././(>• 

Fabri,  P.,  507  ;  Le  grand  et  vrai  art 
de  pleine  rhetorique,  431. 


INDEX. 


545 


Fabriano,  Gllio  da,  G.  A.,  La  topi- 

ca  poetica,  446. 
Fabricius,  370. 

Fabricius,  Cremnicensis,  498. 
Fabricius,  G.,  De  re  poetica,   382 ; 

edition  of  Horace,  381. 
Faguet,  £.,  444 ;  Ferdinand  Brune- 

tiere,  78. 
Falckenberg,       R.,       Kunstler      u. 

Mensch,  sj8. 
Falkenheim,  H.,  Die  Entstehung  d. 

Kantischen  Aesthetik,  /jj ;  Kuno 

Fischer  und  d.  litterar-historische 

Methode,  254. 
Fauchet,  C.,  Recueil  de  1'origine  de 

la  langue  et  poesie  fran9oise,  etc., 

43°- 

Fauriel,  P.,  441 ;  Dante  e  le  origin! 
della  lingua  e  della  letteratura, 
46  ;  Hist,  de  la  poesie  proven9ale, 
372,  5°7- 

Fawcett,  E.,  Should  Critics  be  Gen- 
tlemen ?  jo. 

Fechner,  G.  T.,  129,  130;  aesthetics 
of,  134  ;  Vorschule  der  Aesthetik, 
98 ;  Zur  experimentalen  Aesthe- 
tik, 98. 

Feifalik,  511. 

Fellner,  R.,  Die  neuere  franzbsische 
Kritik  (on  Tissot),  68. 

Felton,  C.  C.,  British  Criticism,^. 

Fenelon,  436. 

Fenner,    D.,  Die  Aesthetik  Kants, 

rj2- 

Fenner,  Dudley  (?),  The  Artes  of. 
Logike  and  Rhetorike,  388. 

Fergusson,  J.,  History  of  Architec- 
ture, 180,  185. 

Ferrari,  G.  S.,  Sul  bello,  170. 

Ferri,  E.,  Les  criminels  dans  1'art  et 
la  litterature,  218. 


Ferri,  L.,  Essai  sur  1'histoire  de  la 
philosophic  en  Italie  au  XIXe 
siecle,  171. 

Ferrier,  Human  Mind  (Function  of 
Imagination),  291. 

Ferrieri,  P.,  Francesco  De  Sanctis 
e  la  critica  letteraria,  jo,  79. 

Fetis,  Histoire  generate  de  la  mu- 
sique,  274. 

Feugere,  373. 

Feussner,  511. 

Fichte,  424. 

Ficino,  387. 

Fielding,  Tom  Jones,  411. 

Figures,  208,  209,  235-238. 

Finzi,  Gius.,  Principii  di  stilistica, 
versificazione  e  metrica  italiana, 
512. 

Fioretti,  Ben.,  447. 

Fischer,  K.,  Francis  Bacon  und 
seine  Nachfolger,  .299. 

Fiske,  John,  Cosmic  Philosophy, 
451  ;  The  Unseen  World  and 
other  Essays,  120. 

Fjellner,  A.,  514. 

Flach,  H.,  Geschichte  d.  griech. 
Lyrik,  370. 

Flaubert,  G.,  Correspondence,  223. 

Fleckeisen,  Plautus,  490. 

Fleischer,  H.,  Ueber  d.  Moglichkeit 
e.  normativen  Aesthetik,  769. 

Fletcher,  455. 

Flint,  R.,  Historical  Philosophy  in 
France,  264;  Philosophy  of  His- 
tory in  France,  266;  on  Sainte- 
Beuve,  36. 

Florez,  C.,  (ed.)  A.  Ordonez's  Aris- 
totle's Poetics,  449. 

Floto,  Ueber  historische  Kritik,  48. 

Folk-Song,  Origin  of  the,  267-274. 

Folk-tales,  267. 


546 


INDEX. 


Fonseca,  Jose  de,  Tratado  de  versi- 
ficasao  port.,  513. 

Fontaine,  La,  431,  507  :  Epitre  a 
Huet,  436. 

Fontanals,  Mila  y,  Historia  literaria 
del  decasilabo  y  endecasilabo  an- 
apesticos,  513. 

Fontenelle,  405  ;  Digression  sur  les 
anciens  et  les  modernes,  435  ;  Dis- 
cours  sur  1'eglogue,  435 ;  Reflex- 
ions sur  la  poesie,  435. 

Form,  Literary,  205. 

Forster,  F.,  371. 

Forster,  M.,  review  of  Gummere's 
Old  English  Ballads,  274. 

Forsyth,  W.,  Essays  Critical  and 
Narrative,  234. 

Fortlage,  C.,  Vorlesungen  iiber  die 
Geschichte  der  Poesie,  379. 

Fortunatianus,  Ars,  491- 

Fouillee,  A.,  Education  from  a  Na- 
tional Standpoint,  218 ;  La 
morale,  1'art  et  la  religion  d'apres 
M.  Guyau,  100. 

Fouquelin  de  Chauny,  507. 

Fournel,  373. 

Fracarroli,  Gius..  D'una  teoria 
razionale  di  metrica  italiana,  512. 

Fracastor,  Girol.,  Naugerius,  381. 

France,  Anatole,  444. 

Fraunce,  Abraham,  Arcadian  Rheto- 
rike,  387,  498. 

Freeman,  E.  A.,  Comparative  Poli- 
tics (The  Unity  of  History),  266. 

Freese,  Die  griech.-rom.  Metrik,  488. 

French  aesthetics,  134. 

French  criticism,  History  of,  77,  78. 

French,  History  of  the  English 
Sonnet,  505. 

French  poetry,  History  of,  371,  372. 

Freron,  438. 


Freudenthal,  J.,  Ueber  d.  Begriff  d. 

Wortes  <f>avra<ria  bei  Aristoteles, 

149. 
Friedlander,  L.,  Homerische  Kritik, 

271  ;  Kant  in  seinem  Verhaltnis 

zur   Kunst    und  schonen   Natur, 

132;  Sittengeschichte  Roms  (Das 

Interesse  fur  Natur  u.  s.  w.),  /6j. 
Friis.  J.  A..  Lappisk  Mythologi.jv^ ; 

Lappiske  Sprogproever,  514. 
Fritzsche,    R.,    Die    Anfange     der 

Poesie,  273,  378. 
Froehde,  O.,  Begriff  u.  Aufgabe  d. 

Litteraturwissenschaft,    47,    218; 

De  hexam.  lat.,  494. 
Frohschammer,  J.,  Ueber  die  Prin- 

cipien  d.  Aristotelischen   Philos., 

'53- 

Frost,  H.  W.,  Figures  of  Speech, 
236. 

Frothingham,  A.  I,.,  The  Philoso- 
phy of  Art,  168. 

Fruit,  J.  P.,  Evolution  of  Figures 
of  Speech,  236. 

Fuller,  S.  Margaret,  Papers  on  Lit- 
erature and  Art,  20. 

Fulwood,  Wm.,  The  Enimie  of  Idle- 
ness, 387. 

Furnivall,  Introduction  to  the  Leo- 
pold Shakespeare,  503. 

Furtwangler,  488. 

Gager,  Dr.,  392. 

Galton,  F.,  Hereditary  Genius,  138 ; 

Inquiries    into    Human    Faculty, 

292. 

Ganderax,  46. 
Garcilasso,  387. 
Garlandia,  Johannes,  380. 
Gascoigne,  George,  Certayne  Notes 

of     Instruction   Concerning    the 


INDEX. 


547 


Making  of  Verse  or  Rhyme,  390, 

496,  497. 
Gaspary,  371. 
Gates,   Lewis   E.,    Selections  from 

the   essays    of    Francis    Jeffrey, 

68. 
Gatschenberger,   S.,  Geschichte  der 

englischen    Litteratur,    .275,  376; 

Gesch.  d.  englischen  Dichtkunst, 

37(>- 

Gauckler,  Ph.,  Le  beau  et  son  his- 
toire,  98,  126,  1 86,  218- 

Gautier.  L.,  371,  508,  444;  Les 
epopees  fran9aises,  372,  506. 

Gautier,  Th.,  443 ;  Hist,  du  roman- 
tisme,  444. 

Gayley,  C.  M.,  A  Society  of  Com- 
parative Literature,  255  ;  Peleus 
and  Thetis  of  Catullus,  504. 

Gayley,  C.  M.,  and  Scott,  F.  N., 
Guide  to  the  Literature  of  Aes- 
thetics, 54,  98,  122. 

Gellert,  Wie  weit  sich  der  Nutzen 
der  Regeln  in  d.  Beredsamkeit 
und  Poesie  erstrecke,  424. 

Gellius,  Aulus,  Noctes  atticae,  491. 

Genee,  R.,  Ueber  Rhythmik  d. 
Sprache  u.  Vortrag,  509. 

Genest,  Account  of  the  English 
Stage,  416. 

Genin,  373,  508. 

Genius,  138. 

Gentiles,  Dr.,  392. 

Genung,  J.  F.,  Practical  Elements 
of  Rhetoric,  52,  236. 

Georgius  Choeroboscus,  Concern- 
ing Tropes,  235. 

Gerard,  Essay  on  Taste,  106. 

Gerber,  Ad.,  Naturpersonification 
in  Poesie  u.  Kunst  d.  Alten,  /6j. 

Gerber,  G.,  Die  Sprache  als  Kunst, 


201,  207,  218,  236,  271,  368;    on 

the  origin  of  language,  268. 
German  aesthetics,  127-129. 
German  criticism,  History  of,  79. 
Geruzez,   E.,   372,   444;    Cours   de 

litterature,  218,  313. 
Gervinus,    G.    G.,    Handbuch    der 

Geschichte    der    poetischen    Na- 

tionallitteratur,   275 ;    Geschichte 

der    deutschen     Dichtung,    275 ; 

Gesch.    d.    poetisch.    Nationallit- 

teratur  d.  Deutschen  (Geschichte 

d.  deutsch.  Dichtung),  373. 
Gesenius,    Lehrgebaude     d.     hebr. 

Sprache,  516. 

Ghil,  Rene,  l£  traite  du  verbe,  465. 
Gibbon,  E.,  416;    Essai  sur  Petude 

de  la  litterature,  219 ;    Essay  on 

the  History  of  Literature,  440. 
Giddings,  F.  H.,  on  origin  of   art, 

175 ;  Principles  of  Sociology,  775, 

799,  272. 
Gidel,  373. 

Gifford,  Wm.,  44,  409,  414,  415. 
Gilchrist,  Censura  literaria,  496. 
Gildersleeve,  452,  488. 
Gildon,  C.,  500;  The  Complete  Art 

of   Poetry,  313,  408,  465;    Laws 

of  Poetry,  408,  465. 
Gilman,  B.  L,  Syllabus  of  Lectures 

on  the   Psychology  of   Pain  and 

Pleasure,  767,  219. 
Ginguene,    Histoire     litteraire     de 

1'Italie,  441. 
Girard,  C.  F.,  La  centralization  des 

lettres  en  France,  .277. 
Girardin,  St.  Marc,  373,  442  ;  Essais 

de  litterature  et  de  morale,  219 ; 

J.  J.  Rousseau,  439. 
Gleditsch,    H.,    456;      Metrik    der 

Griechen  und  Romer,  466. 


548 


INDEX. 


Gneisse,  Schillers  aesthetische 
Wahrnehmung,  362. 

Godefroy,  372. 

Godkin,  E.  L.,  his  definition  of  criti- 
cism, 2. 

Goedeke,  K.,  Deutsche  Dichtung  im 
Mittelalter,  42? ;  Grundriss  zur 
Geschichte  der  deutschen  Dich- 
tung, 275,  374. 

Goethe,  16,  112,  113,  129,  424,  426, 
455;  aesthetics  of,  127;  on  art, 
29 ;  Conversations  with  Ecker- 
mann,  123;  Correspondence  be- 
tween Schiller  and  Goethe,  313  ; 
Deutsche  Baukunst,  127;  Dich- 
tung u.  Wahrheit,  373 ;  on  dis- 
interested criticism,  u ;  Faust, 
455  ;  on  relation  of  art  to  nature, 
163;  Sammtliche  Werke  (on  po- 
etry), 313  ;  Werke  (aesthetics),  98, 
99>  3!3  >  Goethe  and  Eckermann, 
Gesprache  mit  Goethe,  99,  313 ; 
Goethe,  Eckermann,  and  Soret, 
Conversations  of  Goethe,  99, 
3i4- 

Goldbeck-Loewe,  A.,  Zur  Geschichte 
d.  freien  Verse  in  d.  deutschen 
Dichtung  von  Klopstock  bis 
Goethe,  510,  j//. 

Goldsmith,  O.,  410,  412,  415;  on 
the  aim  of  poetry,  281  ;  anthol- 
ogy, 385  ;  The  Bee,  41 1  ;  Essay 
on  Poetry,  501  ;  Essays  (On  the 
Use  of  Metaphors),  236;  Present 
State  of  Polite  Learning,  68,  41 1. 

Gonzalez,  F.  F.,  Historia  de  la  critica 
literaria  en  Espana,  79. 

Gonzalez  de  Salas,  J.  A.,  Nueva 
idea  de  la  tragedia  antigua, 

449- 
Goodell,  Quantity,  494. 


Gooderich,  C.,  Chinese  Hymnology, 

51* 

Gorgious  Gallery  of  Gallant  Inven- 
tions, 384. 

Gosse,  E.,  44,  422 ;  Hist,  of  Eigh- 
teenth Century  Literature,  ^77; 
Jacobean  Poets,  376;  Modern 
English  Literature,  383,  396,  418, 
433'  434  !  P'ea  f°r  Certain  Exotic 
Forms  of  Verse,  joj ;  The  Science 
of  Criticism,  22  ;  Seventeenth  Cen- 
tury Studies,  376,  396;  From 
Shakespeare  to  Pope,  396,  504; 
What  is  a  great  poet  ?  346. 

Gosson,  Plays  Confuted  in  Five  Ac- 
tions, 391  ;  School  of  Abuse,  390. 

Gostwick,  English  Poets,  376. 

Gotthold,  Ueber  Hermann's  Lehre 
vom  Vortrage  d.  griech.  u.  lat. 
Vers,  494. 

Gottschall,  R.  von,  426,  505,  458  ; 
Deutsch.  Nat.-Lit.  d.  19.  Jahrhs., 
J7j;  Poetik,  317,  426,  456,  466, 
509. 

Gottsched,  J.  C.,  509;  Versuch  einer 
kritischen  Dichtkunst,  318,  423. 

Gotzinger,  Deutsche  Litteratur,  374. 

Grabow,  A.,  Ueber  Musik  in  d. 
deutschen  Sprache.jo?. 

Grad,  Ernst,  Populare  Vortrage  iiber 
Dichter  und  Dichtkunst,  428. 

Graf,  A.,  Considerazione  intorno 
alia  storia  letteraria,  .277;  Di  un 
trattazione  scientifica  della  storia 
letteraria,  .277. 

Gramont,  F.  de,  457 ;  Le  vers  fran- 
9ais,  466,  505,  506. 

Grant,  History  of  the  Newspaper 
Press,  406. 

Grasse,  J.  G.  T.,  Lehrbuch  d.  allgem. 
Litt.-Gesch.  aller  bekannten  Vol- 


INDEX. 


549 


ker  d.  Welt,  379  ;  Lehrbuch  einer 
allgemeinen   Litteraturgeschichte, 

275- 
Gravina,  Vine.,  Delia  razione  poe- 

tica,  447. 
Gray,  T.,  407,  410 ;  his  interest  in 

Northern  literature,  412  ;  Metrum, 

411. 
Grazzini,  Ces.,   Horace's   Ars   poe- 

tica,  447. 
Greef,  G.  de,  Introd.  a  la  sociologie, 

f68,  174,  186,  219. 
Greek  aesthetics,  126,  127. 
Green,    John,    Refutation    of     the 

Apologie  for  Actors,  394. 
Greene,    H.    E.,    A    Grouping    of 

Figures  of  Speech,  236. 
Greene,  Robt.,  396  ;  Menaphon,  390. 
Greenough,  J.  B.,  Accentual  Rhythm 

in  Latin,  493 ;  Early  Latin  Pros- 
ody, 493. 
Gregorius    Corinthius,    Concerning 

Tropes,  235. 
Gregory  the  Great,  159. 
Greinz,  Die  tragischen  Motive  in  der 

deutschen  Dichtung  seit  Goethes 

Tod,  365. 
Grimm,     H.,     Bemerkungen     iiber 

Werth    u.    Wirkung    d.    Kunst- 

kritik,  49. 
Grimm,  J.,  262,  511;  on  the  ballad, 

267- 
Grimm,    W.,    456;    on    the   ballad, 

267,    271;   on   communal   poetry, 

271;    Zur  Geschichte  des  Reims, 

466,  5/7 ;    on    rhyme  in  classical 

Latin  verse,  493. 
Griveau,  M.,  Les  elements  du  beau, 

769. 
Grober,  371;    Grundriss  d.  romani- 

schen  Philologie,  484,  508. 


Groos,  K.,  Die  Spiele   der  Thiere 

272,  273. 
Grosart,  398. 
Gross,  P.,  Die  Tropen  und  Figuren, 

236-   - 

Grosse,  E.,  Die  Anfange  d.  Kunst, 
170 ;  The  Beginnings  of  Art,  779, 
1 86,  254;  Der  erste  Baustein  zu 
einer  ethnologischen  Aesthetik, 
770 ;  Die  Litteraturwissenschaft, 
219,  254. 

Grosse,  Ueber  Naturanschauung  d. 
alten  griech.  u.  rom.  Dichter, 
/6J. 

Groth,  E.,  Die  Aufgabe  d.  Litte- 
raturgeschichte, 255;  Kulturge- 
schichte  und  Litteraturgeschichte, 

254- 

Grucker,  £.,  Histoire  des  doctrines 
litteraires  et  esthetiques  en  Alle- 
magne,  68. 

Grundtvig  on  the  ballad,  267. 

Guarini,  Pastor  Fido,  446. 

Gudeman,  A.,  Outlines  of  the  His- 
tory of  Classical  Philology,  54. 

Guest,  E.,  452,  453,  454,  455,  495, 
501,  502,  503;  A  History  of  Eng- 
lish Rhythms,  466. 

Guittone,  458. 

Guizot,  444. 

Gumbara,  Lor.,  De  perfecta  poe- 
seos  ratione,  382. 

Gummere,  F.  B.,  134,  note,  452, 
453.  454»  457 ;  The  Anglo-Saxon 
Metaphor,  236;  The  Ballad  and 
Communal  Literature,  256,  267; 
A  Handbook  of  Poetics,  237,318, 
467  ;  Metaphor  and  Poetry,  237 ; 
Old  English  Ballads,  256,  271, 
274 ;  on  the  origin  of  folk-poetry, 
267-270  ;  The  Translation  of  Beo- 


550 


INDEX. 


wulf  and  the  Relation  of  Ancient 
and  Modern  English  Verse,  502. 

Guoli,  D.,  La  rima  e  la  poesia  itali- 
ana,  j/^. 

Gurney,  E.,  418,  422,  452  ;  Power  of 
Sound,  48,  loo,  125,  181,  319,  451, 
468  ;  Tertium  Quid,  48,  123,  318, 
468. 

Gustafsson,  De  vocum  in  poemat. 
graec.  consonantia,  492. 

Guyard,  Theorie  nouvelle  de  la  me- 
trique  arabe,  518. 

Guyau,  M.-J.,  130,  453;  L'art  au 
point  de  vue  sociologique,  100, 
168,  187,  320;  L'esthetique  du 
vers  moderne,  346 ;  Le  plaisir  du 
beau  et  le  plaisir  du  jeu,  166; 
Les  problemes  de  1'esthetique  con- 
temporaine,  88,  100,  320,  468. 

Guyet,  J.  A.,  L'elegance,  237. 

Ilaase,  Seneca,  491. 

Habenicht,  II.,  Alliteration  bei 
Horaz,  493. 

Iladley,  J.,  452,  489;  Essays,  Philo- 
logical and  Critical,  465,  469 ; 
Greek  Rhythm  and  Metre,  487. 

Ilahn,  W.,  Gesch.  d.  poetisch.  Litt. 
d.  Deutschen,  374  ;  Das  Nibelun- 
genlied,  510. 

Hake,  Touchstone  of  Wittes,  498. 

Hale,  E.  E.,  Jr.,  Constructive  Rhet- 
oric, 237. 

Hales,  J.  W.,  on  Chaucer,  385,  note. 

Hall,  Anthony,  402. 

Hall,  Joseph,  385,  392. 

Hallam,  A.  H.,  Remains  in  Prose 
and  Verse,  2-76. 

Hallam,  H.,  379,  416;  Introd.  to 
the  Literature  of  Europe,  256. 

Hallier,  E.,  Aesthetik  d.  Natur,  /6j. 


Halm,  Rhetores  latini  minores,  235. 

Ilamann,  A.,  109. 

Hamelius,  P.,  406;  Die  Kritik  in 
der  englischen  Literatur  des  17.  u. 
1 8.  Jahrhs.,  383. 

Hamerton,  P.  G.,  Drawing  and  En- 
graving, 181,  199;  French  and 
English,  234;  Portfolio  Papers, 
122,  163. 

Hamilton,  Sir  Wm.,  130. 

Hamilton,  Walter,  Poets  Laureate 
of  England,  376. 

Handefull  of  Pleasant  Delites,  384. 

Hannigan,  D.  F.,  The  Literary  Evo- 
lution of  Man,  258. 

Hanslick,  E.,  Vom  Musikalisch- 
Schonen,  273. 

Harbois  de  Jubainville,  Des  rapports 
de  la  versification  du  vieil  irlan- 
dais  avec  la  versification  romane, 
45S. 

Hardie,  R.  P.,  on  Aristotle's  Poetics, 
91,  156. 

Hardy,  A.  S.,  Letters  and  Life,  20. 

Hardy,  Alex.,  Pastoral  Plays,  431. 

Harisse,  H.,  French  Criticism,  jo. 

Harrington,  Sir  John,  498;  Brief 
Apology  for  Poetrie,  391,  499; 
Translation  of  Orlando  Furioso, 

39i- 
Harris,  Geo.,  Theory  of  the  Arts, 

126,  348. 
Harris,  Jas.,  Philological  Inquiries, 

20,  69. 
Harrison,    F.,  on  Style  in    English 

Prose,  23 j. 
Hart,  J.  M.,  Handbook  of  English 

Composition,  237. 
Hart,   Jul.,   Geschichte    der    Welt- 

litteratur,  273. 
Hartmann,  E.  von,  115;  Aesthetics 


INDEX. 


of,  129;  Aesthetik,  133,  168,  177,, 
219;  Ausgewahlte  Werke,  320; 
Deutsche  Aesthetik  seit  Kant, 
Philosophic  des  Schonen,  100 ; 
Deutsche  Aesthetik,  116;  on  imi- 
tation, 161,  162;  on  the  pathetic, 
137;  on  Trahndorff,  128;  on  the 
ugly,  136- 

Hartmann,  J.  D.,  Versuch  einer  all- 
gemeinen  Geschichte  der  Poesie 
von  den  altesten  Zeiten  an,  378. 

Hartmann,  M.,  Metrum  und  Rhyth- 
mus :  Die  Entstehung  der  arab. 
Versmasse,  518. 

Hartt,  Geology  of  Brazil,  273. 

Hartung,  J.  A.,  Dithyrambos,  494; 
Geschichte  der  Rhythmenschop- 
fung  in  griech.  Lyriker,  493; 
Lehren  d.  Alten  iiber  die  Dicht- 
kunst,  757. 

Harvey,  Gabriel,  389,  430,  504. 

Haslewood,  J.  (ed.),  Ancient  Criti- 
cal Essays  upon  English  Poets 
and  P^esy,  320,  390,  495,  496. 

Hastie,  W.,  102,  133,451;  Transla- 
tion of  Hegel,  128. 

Hatzfield,  A.,  et  Meunier,  G.,  Les  crit- 
iques litteraries  du  19^  siecle,  69. 

Hauck,  G.,  Ueber  d.  Stellung  d. 
Mathematik  zur  Kunst  u.  Wissen- 
schaft,  770. 

Haug,  515. 

Hauptmann,  452. 

Havell,  H.  L.,  109;  Translation  of 
Longinus,  159,  222. 

Hawes,  Pastime  of  Pleasure,  386. 

Haym,  R.,  De  pulchri  atque  artis 
notione,  144,  157. 

Hazard,  R.  G.,  Essays  on  Language, 
349  ;  on  poetry,  284. 

Hazlitt,  W.,  414,  415,  416;  Charac- 


ters of  Shakespeare's  Plays,  415; 
Lectures  on  the  Dramatic  Litera- 
ture of  the  Reign  of  Elizabeth, 
377,  415  ;  Lectures  on  the  English 
Comic  Writers,  321,  415;  Lec- 
tures on  the  English  Poets,  321, 
415;  Round  Table,  jv,  415; 
Table-Talk,  j/,  415. 

Hazlitt,  \V.  C.,  Essay  on  Milton's 
Versification,  502 ;  Offspring  of 
Thought,  j7,  203,  237 ;  Sketches 
and  Essays  (on  Taste),  jv. 

Hearn,  L.,  Japanese  folk  songs, 
274. 

Hecker,  Physiol.  u.  Psychol.  d. 
Lachens,  137. 

Hedge,  F.  H.,  Atheism  in  Philoso- 
phy. 237. 

Hegel,  116,  117,  129,  note,  189,  191, 
198,  442  ;  Aesthetik,  101,  127,  128, 
133,  187,  207,  219,  237,  256,  321, 
451;  Classical  Art,  102  •  Colvin 
on,  183;  on  imitation,  161  ;  In- 
troduction to  the  Philosophy  of  •+ 
Fine  Art  (Bosanquet's  trans.), 
102,  123,  172  ;  Kedney's  exposi- 
tion of,  106  ;  on  law  of  art-evolu- 
tion, 177;  on  metre,  134,  note; 
Philosophy  of  Art :  Chivalry,  102  ; 
on  poetry,  281,  284;  Die  Poesie, 
425;  Romantic  Art,  103 ;  on  the 
stages  of  growth  in  art,  179;  on 
the  sublime,  137  ;  Symbolic  Art, 
102;  Symbolism  of  the  Sublime, 
70j;  on  Winckelmann,  196. 

Hegel  and  Michelet,  The  Philoso- 
phy of  Art,  102. 

Hehn,  V.,  Gedanken  iiber  Goethe 
(Naturphantasie),  i6j. 

Heidemann,  F.,  De  doctrinae  arti- 
um  Aristotelicae  principiis,  153. 


552 


INDEX. 


Hein,  Die  bildenden  Kiinste  bei  d. 
Dayaks  auf  Borneo,  170. 

Heine,  H.,  Die  romantische  Schule, 
3fS,  375,  425- 

Heinsius,  D.,  449  ;  De  constitutione 
tragoediae,  382;  edition  of  Aris- 
totle's Poetics,  382. 

Heinze,  P.,  and  Goette,  R.,  Deutsche 
Poetik,  u.  s.  w.,  428. 

Helferich,  H.,  Kiinstler  u.  Kunst- 
kritiker,  49. 

Helmholtz,  H.  L.  F.  von,  Optique 
physiologique,  129 ;  L'optique  et 
les  arts,  767 ;  On  the  Physiolog- 
ical Causes  of  Harmony  in  Music, 
469 ;  Sensations  of  Tone,  103, 
451,  452,  469. 

Helps,  A.,  Brevia  (Critics,  etc.),  j/; 
Friends  in  Council  (on  Giving  and 
Taking  Criticism,  etc.),  51. 

Henkel,  H.,  Das  Goethesche  Gleich- 
nis,  237. 

Hennequin,  fi.,  6,  444 ;  La  critique 
scientifique,  21. 

Henry,  Ch.,  130;  La  loi  devolution 
de  la  sensation  musicale,  187 ; 
Rapporteur  esthetique,  451,  469. 

Henry,  V.,  Des  origines  du  deca- 
syllabe,  508. 

Hense,  K.  K.,  Ueber  d.  Naturgefiihl 
in  alter  u.  neuer  Poesie,  164 ;  Poe- 
tische  Personification  in  griech. 
Dichtung,  237. 

Hephaestion,  Enchiridion  of  Metres, 
486,  489. 

Herbart,  Aesthetics  of,  128,  134. 

Herder,  J.  G.  von,  129,  412,  424, 
442,  509;  Kalligone,  161 ;  Kriti- 
sche  Walder,  161  ;  Plastik,  161; 
Sammtliche  Werke  (Aesthetics), 
103;  Sammtliche  Werke  (iiber 


die  Wirkung  d.  Dichtkunst  auf 
d.  Sitten  der  Vblker),  256,  323  ; 
Spirit  of  Hebrew  Poetry,  323, 
516;  Ursprung  der  Kunstrichter, 

49- 

Herford,  C.  H.,  Age  of  Wordsworth, 
383;  Literary  Relations  of  Eng- 
land and  Germany  in  the  Six- 
teenth Century,  277. 

Hermann,  C.,  Aesthetische  Farben- 
lehre,  166. 

Hermann,  G.,  491  ;  Theorie  d.  Vers- 
masses,  494. 

Hermeneutics,  4,  47. 

Hermosilla,  Gomez,  Arte  de  hablar 
en  prosa  y  verso,  512. 

Herodianus,    Concerning     Figures, 

235- 

Herrmann,  Die  Aesthetik  in  ihrer 
Geschichte,  131. 

Hettner,  H.,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Lit. 
im  18.  Jahrh.,  375;  Geschichte  d. 
englischen  Literatur,  78,  377. 

Hewitt,  Mary,  Literature  a/id  Ro- 
mance of  Northern  Europe,  274. 

Hexameter,  Renovation  of  the,  455. 

Hey  wood,  Thos.,  Apology  for  Actors, 

393- 
Higginson,    Atlantic    Essays,    203, 

220. 

Higher  criticism,  355. 
Hilberg,  Isid.,    Die  Princip.  d.    Sil- 

benwagung  u.  d.  daraus  entsprin- 

genden  Gesetze  d.  Endsilben  in  d. 

griech.  Poesie,  492. 
Hildebrand,    K.,    Verstheilung     d. 

Edda,  501. 
Hilgers,      Der     dramatische     Vers 

Shakespeare's,  503. 
Hill,  A.  S.,  Foundations  of  Rhetoric, 

237- 


INDEX. 


553 


Hill,  D.  J.,  Science  of  Rhetoric,  237. 
Hillebrand,  Deutsch.   Nat.-Litt.  im 

18.  u.  19.  Jahrh.,  375. 
Hirsch,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Litt.,  374. 
Hirt,  129. 
Hirth,  G.,  Aufgaben  d.  Kunstphysi- 

ologie,  767;  Physiologic  de  1'art, 

767. 
Ilirzel,  A.,  Gleichnisse   und   Meta- 

phern  im  Rigveda,  237. 
Historical  Criticism,  48. 
Hobbes,  his  definition  of  laughter, 

137  ;  Reply  to  Davenant,  397. 
Hofer,  Deutsche  Lit.-Gesch.,  374. 
Hoffding,  Outlines  of   Psychology, 

122,  1 66,  237.     , 
Hoffmann,  F.  A.,  Poetry,  its  Origin, 

Nature,  and  History,  378. 
Hofmann,  371,  511. 
Hogarth,    W.,    409;     Analysis    of 

Beauty,  103,  412. 
Hdgelsberger,  K.  G.,  Alliteration  u. 

Alliterationspoesie,  511. 
Hogg,  414. 
Hohlfeld,  A.  R.,  Studies  in  French 

Versification,  469. 
Holland,  371. 
Holland,  J.   G.,  Every-Day  Topics 

(Criticism),  51. 

Holmes,  O.  W.,  Physiology  of  Ver- 
sification and  the  Harmonies  of 

Organic   and    Animal    Life,  470 ; 

Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  323. 
Holmes- Forbes,  A.  W.,  The  Science 

of  Beauty,  769. 
Holtzmann,  510,  515. 
Holz,  Anna,  Die  Kunst,  770. 
Holzapfel,  Ueber  den  Gleichklang 

bei  Homer,  492. 
Home,  Henry.     See  Kames. 
Honoratus,  Marius  Servius,  492. 


Hood,  T.,  454,  457. 

Hood,    Tom,    Practical    Guide    to 

English    Versification,  470;   The 

Rhymester,  470,  505. 
Horace,   380,   381,   411,   433;    Ars 

poetica,  159,  210,  380. 
Horn,  Fredrik  Winkel,  Geschichte 

d.  Lit.   d.  skandinavischen    Nor- 

dens,  314. 
Horn,    Poesie   u.    Beredsamkeit   d. 

Deutschen   von    Luther   bis    zur 

Gegenwart,  375. 
Horwicz,  Grundl.  eines  Systems  d. 

Aesthetik,  128. 
Hostinsky,  O.,  Herbart's  Aesthetik, 

W- 

Houssaye,  A.,  373. 

Howard,  Sir  Robt.,  Preface  to  Four 
New  Plays,  399. 

Howells,  W.  D.,  8,  44 ;  Criticism 
and  Fiction,  21 ;  Editor's  Study, 
21 ;  Review  of  Perry's  English 
Literature,  260 ;  Review  of  Pos- 
nett's  Comparative  Literature,^67. 

Howison,  G.  H.,  The  Essential 
Principle  in  Poetry,  323. 

Huber,  J.  P.,  Zu  den  Platonischen 
Gleichnissen,  237. 

Hiibner,  Grundr.  zu  Vorlesungen 
iiber  d.  Gesch.  und  Encykl.  d. 
class.  Philol.,  369. 

Hudson,  W.  H.,  The  Naturalists  in 
La  Plata,  273. 

Hueffer,  F.,  Italian  Studies,  48; 
Troubadours,  Ancient  and  Mod- 
ern, 305. 

Huemer,  Untersuchungen  iiber  die 
altesten  lat.  christ.  Rythmen, 
494,  511;  Untersuchungen  iiber 
d.  jambisch.  Dimeter  bei  d.  .  .  . 
Hymnendichtern,  494. 


554 


INDEX. 


Huet,  79. 

Hugo,     Victor,     435,     441 ;      Her- 

nani,  442 ;   Preface  to  Cromwell, 

442. 
Humbert,  C.,  Die  Gesetze  der  fran- 

zosischen  Verse,  470. 
Humboldt,  Alex,  von,  Cosmos,  257, 

324- 

Humboldt,  W.  von,  161. 
Hume,  D.,  130;  Dissertations,  412; 

Dissertation    on    Tragedy,    384 ; 

Essays,  22  ;  Philosophical  Works, 

104 ;  Treatise  of  Human  Nature 

(Aesthetics),  104,  409. 
Hunt  and  Lee,  Book  of  the  Sonnet, 

SOS- 
Hunt,  Leigh,  415;  Selections  from 
the  English  Poets,  324 ;  What  is 
Poetry?  470. 

Hunt,  T.  W.,  Literary  Criticism,  22; 
Studies  in  Literature  and  Style, 
220. 

Hunt,  W.  Holman,  The  Ideals  of 
Art,  169. 

Hiird,  Bishop,  407,  410;  Letters 
on  Chivalry  and  Romance,  411  ; 
Notes  on  Horace,  159;  The  Prov- 
inces of  the  Several  Species  of 
Dramatic  Poetry,  etc.,  411. 

Huss,  Lehre  vom  Accent  der  deut- 
schen  Sprache,  510. 

Hutcheson,  F.,  130,  410;  Enquiry 
into  the  Original  of  our  Ideas  of 
Beauty  and  Virtue,  409 ;  Essay 
on  the  Passions  and  Affections, 
409. 

Hutton,  R.  H.  (ed.),  213. 

Huxley,  T.  H.,  Art  and  Science,  57 ; 
Biology,  799,  266 ;  Literature  and 
Science,  203,  211;  Liverpool  Lec- 
ture, 203,  212. 


Imitation,  Aristotle  on,  145-157, 
294;  Plato's  theory  of,  140,  144; 
Imitative  instinct,  173. 

Improvisation,  273. 

Individual  vs.  communal  origin  of 
poetry,  267-270. 

Inductive  criticism,  5 ;  Moulton  on, 
28. 

Interpretation,  13. 

Irving,  W.,  Biography  and  Miscel- 
lanies (Thoughts  on  Criticism),  jf. 

Italian  Criticism,  History  of,  79. 

Jacob,  G.,  De  aequali  stroph.  et 
antistroph.  in  trag.  graec.  con- 
firmatione,  492. 

Jacob,  T.  A.  L.  von.     See  Talvj. 

Jacobi,  Fr.,  De  usu  alliterationis 
apud  Sophoclem,  492. 

Jacobowski,  L.,  453 ;  Die  Anfange 
der  Poesie,  257,  378;  428,  471; 
Die  Physik  der  Lyrik,  274. 

Jacobs,  Jos.,  English  Fairy  Tales, 
271  ;  on  folk-poetry,  267,  271. 

Jahn,  M.,  Psychologie  als  Grund- 
wissenschaft  d.  Padagogik,  166. 

James,  Henry,  6;  Literary  Criticism, 
32;  The  Science  of  Criticism,  22. 

James  I  of  England,  The  Essays 
of  a  Prentice  in  the  Divine  Art 
of  Poesie,  324,  390,  497;  Schorl 
Treatise  conteining  some  Reulis 
and  Cautelis,  etc.,  497. 

James,  W.,  Lectures  on  the  Figura- 
tive Language  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, 237. 

James,  W.,  Principles  of  Psychology, 
j2,  1 66,  206,  220. 

Jan,  C.  von,  Die  Tonarten  bei 
Plato,  112. 

Janet,  P.,  444. 


INDEX. 


555 


Japp,  A.  H.,  Three  Great  Teachers, 

MS- 

Jardine,  R.,  Elements  of  the  Psy- 
chology of  Cognition,  166. 

Jaret,  Chas.,  La  litterature  alle- 
mande  au  xviiie  siecle  dans  ses 
rapports  avec  la  litterature  fran- 
9aise  et  avec  la  litterature  anglaise, 
276. 

Jauss,  G.,  Der  ideale  Gehalt  d. 
Poesie  als  bildendes  Element, 

347- 
Jeanroy,  A.,  444;    Les  origines  de 

la  poesie   lyrique   en    France  au 

moyen  age,  372. 
Jebb,   R.  J.,   Bentley,  405;    Sacred 

Literature,  516. 
Jeffrey,    F.,    5,  44,    130,   414,    416; 

Contributions  to   the  Edinburgh 

Review,  324. 
Jenkin,  Fleeming,  452,  453;  Papers, 

Literary,  Scientific,  etc.,  49,  471. 
Jennings,  Curiosities  of   Criticism, 

49- 
Jerusalem,  E.,  Ueber  d.  Arist.  Ein- 

heiten  im  Drama,  go. 
Jespersen,  O.,  Progress  in  Language, 

233- 

Jessen,  Grundziige  d.  altgermanisch. 
Metrik,  510. 

Johansson,  on  Latin  ictus  and  ac- 
cent, 495. 

Johnson,  S.,  45,  396,  409,  413,  416; 
Dictionary,  410;  Lives  of  the  Most 
Eminent  English  Poets,  376,  408, 
410;  Observations  on  Macbeth, 
410;  on  poetry,  286;  Rambler, 
410;  Shakespeare,  410;  Works 
(on  the  theory  of  poetry),  325. 

Jolly,  373- 

Jones,  Biographia  dramatica,  416. 


Jonson,  Ben,  395,  396,  434;  Every 
Man  in  His  Humour,  392 ;  Fit  of 
Rhyme  against  Rhyme,  500 ;  The 
Poetaster,  392 ;  Preface  to  Se- 
janus,  393 ;  Timber,  220,  394. 

Jordan,  A.,  Literature  in  Relation 
to  Science,  220. 

Jordan,  W.,  Episteln  und  Vortrage, 

325- 
Joubert,  J.,  Pensees,  23,  208,  221, 

325»  441- 
Jouffroy,  Th.,  129,  134;  Cours  d'es- 

thetique,  104. 
Jowett,    B.,   132 ;    on    relations    of 

thought  and  language,  205. 
Judicial  criticism,   5 ;   Moulton  on, 

28. 
Julien,   Stanislas,  Hoei-Lan-Ki,  ou 

1'histoire  du  cercle  de  craie,  jv/; 

L'orphelin  de  la  Chine,  5/7. 
Julleville,  Petit  de,  Hist,  de  la  langue 

et  de  la  litterature  fran9-,  445. 
Jullien,  Hist,  de  la  poesie  fran9-  i 

1'epoque  imperiale,  372. 
Justi,  K.,  144;  Die  aesth.  Elemente 

in  d.  Platon.  Philos.,  112. 

Kaemmerer,  L.,  Die  Landschaft  in 
d.  deutschen  Kunst,  /6f. 

Kaimes.     See  Kames. 

Kames,  Lord,  130,  409;  The  Ele- 
ments of  Criticism,  23,  105,  221, 
237,  412;  on  natural  beauty,  160. 

Kant,  I.,  56,  116,  129,  161,  424;  on 
the  beautiful,  135;  Critique  du 
jugernent  (Barni's  trans.),  104, 105; 
Critique  of  Judgment,  116;  his 
definition  of  criticism,  3,  46,  47  ; 
Kritik  d.  aesthetischen  Urtheils- 
kraft,  127;  Kritik  of  Judgment 
(Bernard's  trans.),  105  ;  Kritik  of 


556 


INDEX. 


Judgment,  326;  Kritik  der  Urteils- 
kraft,  412;  Sammtliche  Werke 
(aesthetics),  104  ;  on  the  Sublime, 
137- 

Kawczynski,  Max,  458,  492,  494, 
508 ;  Essai  comparatif  sur  1'ori- 
gine  et  1'histoire  des  rhythmes, 
257,  268,  271,  453.471- 

Keats,  415. 

Keble,  J.,  De  poeticae  vi  medica, 
273 ;  Occasional  Papers  and  Re- 
views, 327. 

Kedney,  J.  S.,  451  ;  The  Beautiful 
and  the  Sublime,  106, 136;  Hegel's 
Aesthetics,  106,  128,  133. 

Keightley,  455. 

Keil,  Scriptores  artis  metricae,  491. 

Keltische  Zeitschrift,  261. 

Kennedy,  E.,  Lecture  on  the  Princi- 
ples and  Uses  of  Alliteration  in 
Poetry,  302. 

Ker,  W.  P.,  The  Philosophy  of  Art, 
107,  123. 

Key,  T.  H.,  Accent  a  Guiding  Prin- 
ciple, 49j ;  A  Partial  Attempt  to 
reconcile  the  Laws  of  Latin 
Rhythm  with  those  of  Modern 
Languages,  438. 

Kiehl,  Correspondierender  Reim  bei 
Aeschylus,  492. 

Kimball.W.  H.,on  the  beautiful,  135. 

Kingdon,  S.  S.,  Rules  of  Criticism, 
52- 

Kirchmann,  Von,  136;  Aesthetik 
auf  realistischer  Grundlage,  128; 
on  imitation,  161. 

Klee,  H.,  GrundzUge  einer  Aesthetik 
nach  Schopenhauer,  134. 

Klein,  Geschichte  des  Dramas,  j6S. 

Klein,  Felix,  La  poesie  et  le  temps 
present,  347. 


Kleinpaul,  E.,  426;  Poetik,  327, 
427. 

Klopstock,  509. 

Klotz,  R.,  370;  Grundziige  d.  altro- 
mischen  Metrik,  490;  Ueber  die 
neueren  Erscheinungen  auf  d. 
Gebiete  d.  gr.  u.  rom.  Metrik,  488. 

Kluge,  F.,  Zur  Geschichte  des 
Reimes  im  Altgermanischen,  472, 
501,  511 ;  Nat.-Litteratur,  374. 

Knaack,  G.,  on  Alexandrine  litera- 
ture, 369. 

Knaut,  C.,  Ueber  die  Metrik  Robert 
Greene's,  502. 

Knight,  \Vm.,  Criticism  as  a  Trade, 
jo;  Philosophy  of  the  Beautiful, 
79,  107,  122,  131,  162,  171,  172, 
181,  327;  Poetry  and  Science, 
204;  Studies  in  Philosophy  and 
Literature,  327,  418;  A  Theory 
of  Poetry,  346. 

Knox,  V.,  Essays  (Modem  Criti- 
cism), 52. 

Koberstein,  K.  A.,  Entwickelung 
der  deutschen  Poesie,  275,  374 ; 
Grundriss  der  Geschichte  der 
deutschen  Nationallitteratur,  275, 
374 ;  Vermischte  Aufsatze  zur 
Litteraturgesch.  u.  Aesthetik,  374. 

Koberstein  und  Diez,  Altrom. 
Sprachdenkmaler,  3-09. 

Koch,  C.  F.,  Figuren  und  Tropen, 
237;  Historische  Grammatik  d. 
engl.  Sprache,  jOf. 

Koch,  Max,  Einleitung  to  Zeitschrift 
f.  vergl.  Litteraturgeschichte,  257. 

Koenig,  G.,  Deutsche  Litt.-Ge- 
schichte,  374;  Zu  Shakespeare's 
Metrik,  502 ;  Der  Vers  in  Shakes- 
peare's Dramen,  503. 

Koerner,  O.,  Ueber  d.  Naturbeob- 


INDEX. 


557 


achtungen   im  homerischen  Zeit- 

alter,  165. 

Kogel,  T.,  Lotze's  Aesthetik,  134. 
Kohfeldt,    G.,    zur    Aesthetik    der 

Metapher,  237. 
Kohler,    J.,    Aesthetik,    Philologie, 

und    vergleichende    Litteraturge- 

schichte,  .277. 
Kblbing,    E.,   Beitrage    zur  verglei- 

chenden    Geschichte   der    roman- 

tischen    Poesie   und    Prosa    des 

Mittelalters,  275. 
Konig,  W.,  372. 
Kopp,  Iamb.  Trim.,  495. 
Korting,  204,  37 1 ;    on  the  classifi- 
cation   of    Literature,    239—242 ; 

Encyklopadie  u.  Methodologie  d. 

romanischen  Philologie.  201,  221, 

258.  35°'  370.  445.  5°6,  512,  513; 

Grundr.  zur  Gesch.  d.  engl.  Lit., 

377- 
Koster,  Kurze  Darstellung  d.  Dich- 

tungsarten,  347. 
Kostlin,  K.,   128;    Aesthetik,  107; 

Prolegomena  zur  Aesthetik,  108  ; 

Ueber  d.  Schonheitsbegriff,  108, 

135- 
Kralik,  R.  von,  Kunstbiichlein  ge- 

rechten    griindlichen     Gebrauchs 

aller    Freunde    der    Dichtkunst, 

328. 
Krantz,  E.,  Essai  sur  1'esthetique  de 

Descartes,  23,  69,  135,  221. 
Kratz,  H.,  Aesthetik,  770. 
Krause,  System  d.  Aesthetik,  128. 
Krauss,     Iamb,     tetram.     Terent, 

495- 
Krauter,     Ueber     neuhochdeutsche 

und  antike  Verse,  510. 
Krejci,  Das  characteristische  Merk- 

mal  der  Volkspoesie,  272. 


Kressner,  A.,  372;  Leitfaden  d. 
f ranzosischen  Metrik,  507. 

Kreyssig,  F.,  372. 

Krohn,  La  chanson  populaire  en 
Finlande,  272. 

Krumbacher,  K.,  on  the  confusion 
of  literary  kinds  in  Byzantine  lit- 
erature, 369. 

Krupp,  D.,  Homerische  Gleichnisse, 

237- 
Kruse,  H.,  Der  griech.  Hexameter 

in  d.  deutschen  Nachbildung,  487. 
Kiihnemann,  E.,  Bericht  iiber  neuere 

Erscheinungen  aus  d.  Gebiete  d. 

Geschichte  d.  Aesthetik,  770. 
Kurtzweil,  E.,  Traite  de  la  prosodie 

de  la  langue  ital.,  577. 
Kurz,  Literatur-Geschichte,  374. 
Kurz  u.  Paldamus,  Dichter  u.  Pro- 

saisten,  374. 

Kiisel,  E.,  Ueber  Schillers  Gleich- 
nisse, 237. 
Kussmaul,      A.,      Storungen      der 

Sprache,  206. 
Kuttner,    M.,   Das   Naturgefiihl   d. 

Altfranzosen,  i6j. 

Lacereau,  E.,  Groulabodha,  Traite 
de  prosodie  sanscrite,  J-TJ. 

Lachmann,  373,  510 ;  on  the  origin 
of  poetry,  267  ;  Tibullus  and  Pro- 
pertius,  490. 

Lacroix,  Albert,  Histoire  de  1'influ- 
ence  de  Shakespeare  sur  le  theatre 
fran?ais,  276. 

La  Croze,  Works  of  the  Learned, 
402. 

La  Grasserie,  R.  de,  Essai  de  rhyth- 
mique  comparee,  472  ;  fitudes  de 
grammaire  comparee,  472  ;  litude 
de  rhythmique,  472  ;  De  la  strophe 


558 


INDEX. 


et  du  poeme  dans  la  versification 
francaise,  472. 

Laharpe,  F.  C.  de,  372,  379;  Cours 
de  litterature,  438. 

I^amartine,  Premieres  meditations 
poetiques,  507. 

Lamb,  Chas.,  414,  415. 

Lamennais,  134. 

Lammermayer,  F.,  Gedanken  iiber 
Litteraturgeschichte,  278. 

La  Monte,  Catherine  B.,  Brief  De- 
fense of  Criticism,^. 

Lamotte,  436. 

Landerer,  Hermeneutik,  48. 

Landgraf  und  Wolfflin,  Ueber  d. 
alliterirenden  Verbindungen  d. 
lat.  Sprache,  493. 

Landi,  Const.,  Libro  primo  della 
Poetica,  446. 

Landor,  455. 

Lang,  A.,  159,  272  ;  A  Critical 
Taboo,  52;  Introd.  to  Havell's 
Longinus,  109;  Manners  of  Critics, 
jo;  The  Science  of  Criticism,  22. 

Lang,  H.  R.,  On  Spanish  Metaphors, 

237- 

Lange,  Commentary  on  Job,  516. 
Lange,  Deutsche  Poetik,  427. 
Lange,  R.,  Altjapanische  Fruhlings- 

lieder,  518. 
Langen,    Latein.    Ictus,    etc.,    495; 

Metapher  von  Plautus  bis  Teren- 

tius,  237. 
Langlois,  E.,  444;  De  artibus  rhe- 

toricae  rhythmicae,  429,  note. 
Language,  Literature  and,  233  ;  na- 
ture of,  205-207  ;  origin  of,  205. 
Lanier,  S.,  452,  453  ;  The  Science  of 

English  Verse,  328,  451,  472,  501. 
Lanson,    G.,     444 ;     Boileau,    432 ; 

Critiques    d'aujourd'hui :     hmile 


Faguet,  77 ;  Hist,  de  la  litt.  fran9-, 

445- 

Lanzi,  L.,  The  History  of  Painting 
in  Italy,  188. 

Laprade,  V.  de,  Essais  de  critique 
idealiste,  177,  188;  Histoire  du 
sentiment  de  la  nature,  164. 

Larkin,  G.  L.,  Scansion  of  the 
Heroic  Verse,  504. 

Larroumet,  G.,  444 ;  fitudes  de  lit- 
terature et  d'art  (Brunetiere,  Le 
i8e  siecle  et  la  critique  contempo- 
raine),  77. 

Lassen,  515. 

Laurie,  S.  S.,  Lectures  on  Language, 

221. 

Lawrence,    John,     On    Alliterative 

Verse,  502. 

Lazarus,  Das  Leben  d.  Seele,  166. 
Lebasteur,  Buffon,  439. 
Le  Bon,  G.,  L'evolution  des  peuples, 

272;      Psychologic     des     foules, 

272. 
Le  Bossu,  Traite  du  poeme  epique, 

395.  436- 
Lechalas,  130. 
Lecky,   453;    Phonetic    Theory   of 

English  Prosody,  458,  473. 
Le  Clerc,  373. 

Leclerq,  L'art  est  rationnel,  221. 
Ledereq,  E.,   Philos.  de  1'enseigne- 

ment  des  beaux-arts,  ibq. 
Lee,  Vernon.     See  Violet  Paget. 
Legge,    Dr.   James,    The    Chinese 

Classics,  517. 
Le    Goffic,   C.,    and    Thieulin,    E., 

Nouveau    traite    de    versification 

fran9aise,  473. 
Leland,  384  ;  Collectanea,  384,  note; 

Commentarii  de  scriptoribus  13ri- 

tannicis.  384,  note. 


INDEX. 


559 


Lemaitre,  Jules,  444  ;  Corneille  et  la 

poetique  d'Aristote,  157. 
Lemcke,  371;    Populare  Aesthetik, 

126,   136. 
L'Enfant,  Critiques  des  remarques, 

433- 

Lenient,  372,  444. 
Lenton,  Young  Gallant's  Whirligig, 

395- 

Lentzner,  Ueber  d.  Sonett  u.  s.  Ge- 
staltung,  505. 

Leslie,  414. 

Lessing,  G.  E.,  45,  105,  203,  232, 
419,  422,  424;  Dramatic  Notes, 
23;  Hamburgische  Dramaturgie, 
424;  on  imitation,  161;  The  Lao- 
coon,  108,  118,  124,  127,  412,  424; 
Nathan  der  Weise,  509;  Werke 
(Aesthetics),  108 ;  Werke  (on  the 
theory  of  poetry),  328. 

Letourneau,  C.,  L'evolution  litteraire 
dans  les  diverses  races  humaines, 
258 ;  The  Origin  of  Literary 
Forms,  258. 

Leuba,  J.  H.,  j,  444. 

Leutsch,  Entstehung  d.  ep.  Hexam. 
495  5  Namen  d.  Fiisse,  494. 

Levallois,  J.,  Critique  litteraire  en 
France,  50. 

Leveleye,  Primitive  Property,  266. 

Leveque,  C.,  129,  134, 144;  Le  sens 
du  beau  chez  les  betes,  166; 
Platon,  fondateur  de  1'esthetique, 
112  ;  Science  du  beau,  109,  131. 

Levezon,  Ueber  archaol.  Kritik  u. 
Ilermeneutik,  47. 

Lewes,  G.  II.,   133;  English  Errors  f 
and    Abuses    of     Criticism,    jo; 
German    Philosophical    Criticism 
of  Literature,  jo;  Life  of  Goethe, 
208 ;     Principles    of    Success    in 


Literature,  23,  /jS,  201,  210,  221, 

237,  417;    Problems  of  Life  and 

Mind,  206,  222,  417. 
Leynardi,  L.,  La  psicologia  dell'  arte 

nella  Divina  commedia,  777. 
Lieber,  F.,  Legal  and  Political  Her- 

meneutics,  24. 
Liepert,  Aristoteles  u.  d.  Zweck  d. 

Kunst,  gi. 
Liers,  H.,  Zur  Geschichte  d.  Stilarten, 

234- 

Lillo,  George  Barn  well,  413. 

Limayrac,  P.,  De  1'esprit  critique  en 
France,  78. 

Lindsay,  Lord,  Theory  of  English 
Hexameters,  304. 

Lingenberg,  Platonische  Bilder  und 
Sprichworter,  237. 

Linquiti,  F.,  Sul  nuovo  indirizzo 
degli  studi  letterari,  storici  e  cri- 
tici,  277. 

Lipps,  Th.,  Aesthetische  Factoren 
d.  Raumanschauung,  167;  Aes- 
thetischer  Litteraturbericht,  133; 
Tragik,  Tragbdie  und  wissen- 
schaftliche  Kritik,  jj. 

Lisle,  Leconte  de,  443. 

Literary  fashions,  359. 

Literary  movements,  366,  367. 

Literary  theory,  Classification  of, 
242-247. 

Literatesque,  213. 

Literature,  American,  377-378; 
classification  of,  210,  211,  239; 
comparative,  248-278 ;  elements 
of,  204 ;  growth  of,  58,  59 ;  nature 
and  scope  of,  200-202  ;  relation 
of  critical  theory  to,  60,  61  ;  re- 
lation of,  to  art,  202,  203;  rela- 
tion of,  to  national  life,  358-362  ; 
relation  of,  to  science  and  p'..i- 


560 


INDEX. 


losophy,  203,  204 ;  theory  of,  200- 

247 ;  and  language,  233. 
Littre,  373,  508. 
Livet,  508. 
Livius,  491. 
Llaguno,  E.  (ed.),  Ignacio  de  Luzan's 

La  poetica,  449. 
Loch,  E.,  Ue  alliteratione  serm.  lat, 

493,  5"- 

Locke,  J.,  Essay  concerning  the 
Human  Understanding,  405. 

Lockhart,  414,  415. 

Lodge,  T.,  Alarum  against  Usurers, 
391  ;  Defense  of  Poetry,  Music, 
etc.,  390. 

Loebell,  Entwicklung  d.  deutsch. 
Poesie,  374. 

Lofft,  Capel,  Laura,  An  Anthology 
of  Sonnets,  305. 

Loise,  Ferd.,  De  1'influence  de  la 
civilization  sur  la  poesie,  276; 
Histoire  de  la  poesie  en  rapport 
avec  la  civilization,  276;  Traite 
de  litterature,  235. 

Lombroso,  C.,  The  Man  of  Genius, 
138. 

Lombroso,  G.,  II  commercio  e  la 
letteratura,  2-jj. 

Lomenie,  L.  de,  372  ;  Esquisses  his- 
toriques  de  litterature  (Chateau- 
briand et  la  critique),  77. 

Long,  G.,  An  Old  Man's  Thoughts, 
222. 

Longfellow,  H.  W.,  455 ;  Essay  on 
the  Defense  of  Poetry,  349. 

Longinus,  127,  159,  380,  433;  On 
the  Sublime,  109,  222 ;  Prole- 
gomena to  Hephaestion's  Enchi- 
ridion, 490;  Quae  supersunt 
graece  et  latine,  109. 

Longwell,  S.  A.,  102. 


Lonnrot,  Introd.  to  first  edition  of 
the  Kalevala,  514. 

Lord,  D.  N.,  Laws  of  Figurative 
Language,  237. 

Lotze,  H.,  115,  137,  162;  Aesthetics 
of,  128,  134;  Geschichte  d.  Aes- 
thetik  in  Deutschland,  109,  132, 
136,  425;  Microcosmus,  109,  188, 
222;  Outlines  of  Aesthetics,  no, 
425- 

Lounsbury,  T.  R.,  on  Chaucer's 
versification,  480 ;  Studies  in 
Chaucer,  385,  note,  502. 

Lowell,  J.  R.,  45 ;  Criticism  and 
Culture,  24;  Lectures  on  the 
English  Poets,  330 ;  Letters,  25 ; 
'Literary  and  Political  Essays  and 
Addresses,  330 ;  Literary  Criti- 
cism, 24 ;  Prose  Works  (criti- 
cism), 24. 

Lowth,  R.,  383 ;  Lectures  on  Sacred 
Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  5 1 6. 

Lubarsch,  E.  O.,  506;  Franzosische 
Verslehre  mit  neuen  Entwicke- 
lungen  fur  d.  theoret.  Begriindung 
d.  franzosischen  Rhythmik,  474. 

Liibben,  A.,  Die  Kritik,  53 ;  Ueber 
d.  aesthet.-psychol.  Beurtheilung 
d.  Poesie,  53. 

Lubbock,  Sir  John,  Essay  on  Poetry, 

349- 
Lubke,  W.,'i99;  Ecclesiastical   Art 

in  Germany,  197 ;    Geschichte  d. 

Architectur,  197 ;  History  of  Art, 

180,   181  ;   History  of  Sculpture, 

180,  197. 
Lucking,  371. 
Luick  and  Schipper,  495. 
Luick,  K.,  Zur  altengl.  u.  altsachs. 

Metrik,  501  ;  Zur  Entstehung  der 

Theorie  der  Schwellverse,  509. 


INDEX. 


561 


Liming,  O.,  Die  Natur,  166. 

Lunt,  W.  P.,  Figurative  Language, 

237- 

Lu'tzow,  C.  von,  192. 
Luzan,  Ignacio  de,  La  poetica,  449, 

512. 
Lytton,  Sir  E.  B.,  Caxtoniana,  222, 

2j4\   Quarterly  Essays   (Love  in 

its  Influence  on  Literature),  ^77. 

Maass,  K.,  Ueber  Metapher  und 
Allegorie  im  deutschen  Sprich- 
wort,  237. 

Mabie,  H.  W.,  Essays  in  Literary 
Interpretation,  25 ;  Short  Studies 
in  Literature,  25,  201,  203,  223; 
Significance  of  Modern  Criticism, 
25,  69. 

Macaulay,  T.  B.,  45,  415,  416;  Es- 
says, 25,  69,  189,  258,  330;  Essay 
on  Montgomery,  384 ;  on  poetry, 
284 ;  on  relation  of  criticism  and 
creation,  8. 

Mac-Carthy,  Trans,  of  Calderon  (In- 
trod.),  457- 

MacGill,  Stevenson,  Lectures  on 
Rhetoric  and  Criticism,  516. 

MacLean,  G.  E.,  Old  and  Middle 
English  Reader,  502. 

Macleane,  Horace,  490. 

Macpherson,  441 ;  Fragments  of 
Ancient  Poetry,  411;  Poems  of 
Ossian,  411,  412. 

McCormick,  W.  S.,  Three  Lectures 
on  English  Literature,  223. 

McDermot,  Critical  Dissertation, 
126. 

McElroy,  J.  G.  R.,  Structure  of 
English  Prose,  237. 

McLaughlin,  E.  T.,  Literary  Criti- 
cism for  Students,  26. 


Madius,  Vine,  and  Bart.  Lombardus, 

edition  of  Aristotle's  Poetics  with 

commentary   on    the    poetics    of 

Horace,  381. 
Maffei,    Scip.,    Discours    sur    1'his- 

toire  et  le  genie  des  poetes  itali- 

ens,  447. 
Magdeburg,      Ueber      Bilder     und 

Gleichnisse   bei    Euripides,  237. 
Mager,  372. 
Maginn,  414. 
Magisterial  arrangement  of  literary 

history,  366. 
Maguard,  A.,  La  synthese  des  arts, 

769- 

Mahaffy,  370. 
Mahn,  371. 
Main,  David,  Treasury  of  English 

Sonnets,  505. 
Main,  Wm.,  Expression  in  Nature, 

163. 
Maine,  Sir  H.,  Ancient  Law,  266; 

Early  History  of  Institutions,  266 ; 

Village  Communities,  266. 
Mairet,  Preface  to  Sylvanire,  432  ; 

Sophonisbe,  432. 
Malherbe,  64,  431,  434,  439,  507. 
Mallet,  L'Abbe,  Le  critique,  27. 
Mallock,  W.  H.,  The  Individualist 

Ideal,  ///. 

Manner  and  Style,  243,  244. 
Mannhardt,  Mythologische  Quellen 

und  Forschungen,  274. 
Manutius,   Aldus,   commentary    on 

Horace's  Ars  poetica,  382. 
Marbach,    H.,    Das    Mysterium    d. 

Kunst,  770. 
Marheineke,  Ueber  die  Shakespeare- 

schen  Gleichnisse,  237. 
Marivaux,  413,  438. 
Marlowe,  396,  455  ;  Faustus,  455. 


562 


INDEX. 


Marmontel,  J.  F.,  507,  508;  La  cri- 
tique, 27 ;  Elements  de  la  littera- 
ture,  163,  223,  237. 

Marold,  K.,  Ueber  d.  poetische  Ver- 
wertung  d.  Natur,  166. 

Maron,  373. 

Marot,  429. 

Marsh,  G.  P.,  Lectures  on  the  Eng- 
lish Language,  456,  457. 

Marsh,  James,  Translator  of  Herder, 

323- 

Marshall,  H.  R.,  88 ;  Aesthetic  Prin- 
ciples, 43,  no;  Pain,  Pleasure, 
and  Aesthetics,  no,  137,  166,  174. 

Marston,  392. 

Marta,  Oral.,  Sposizione  della  Poe- 
tica  d'  Aristotile,  447. 

Martelli,  P.  J.,  Versi  e  prose  (Della 
poetica,  Sermoni),  447. 

Martin,  H.,  Analyse  critique  de  la 
poetique  d'Aristote,  90,  157. 

Martineau,  Harriet,  Translation  of 
Comte,  183. 

Martinez  de  la  Rosa,  Poetica,  512. 

Martling,  J.  A.,  102. 

Marvel,  on  Milton,  398. 

Masci,  Psicologia  del  comico,  137. 

Masden,  Arte  poetica,  512. 

Massieu,  La  poesie  fr.  du  lie  au  15^ 
siecle,  372. 

Masson,  D.,  45,  418,  455;  Essays 
Biographical  and  Critical,  163, 
331,  376  ;  Poetical  Works  of  John 
Milton,  474 ;  Theories  of  Poetry, 
153,  309;  on  poetry,  288. 

Mathews,  W.,  Great  Conversers 
(Curiosities  of  Criticism),  49; 
Literary  Style  (Sensitiveness  to 
Criticism),  52. 

Mattei,  L.,  Horace's  Ars  poetica, 
447- 


Matthews,  Brander,  470 ;  Ameri- 
canisms, 32;  An  Inquiry  as  to 
Rhyme,  457 ;  Introduction  to 
American  Literature,  378 ;  Re- 
cent Essays  in  Criticism,  32; 
Whole  Duty  of  Critics,  32. 

Matzner,  371. 

Maur,  370. 

Maurice,  F.  D.,  Friendship  of  Books, 
27. 

Maurus,  Terentianus,  De  litteris,  de 
syllabis,  de  metris,  491. 

Maury,  Espagne  poetique,  512; 
Versificacion  y  elocucion,  512. 

Mayans  y  Siscar,  G.  de,  Origines 
de  la  lengua  Espanola,  448. 

Mayer,  426. 

Mayor,  John  E.  B.,  Bibliographical 
Clue  to  Latin  Literature,  491. 

Mayor,  Jos.  B.,  452,  453,  454,  503, 
509 ;  Chapters  on  English  Metre, 
474,  506. 

Mazade,  C.  de,  120;  Le  realisme 
dans  la  critique,  jj. 

Mazzarella,  B.,  Della  critica,  jj,  69. 

Mazzini,  Jos.,  45. 

Mead,  W.  E.,  Elementary  Composi- 
tion and  Rhetoric,  237  ;  Versifica- 
tion of  Pope,  joj,  504. 

Meadows,  Desultory  Notes  on  China, 
5!7- 

Medhurst,  Sir  W.,  Chinese  Poetry, 

5*7- 
Mehring,    S.,    Deutsche   Verslehre, 

509 ;    Der   Reim    in   seiner   Ent- 

wickelung  und  Fortbildung,  511. 
Meigret,  507. 
Meissner,    Choriambus,    494 ;    Zur 

Metrik,  494. 
Melancthon,  De  rhetorica,  386;  In- 

stitutiones  rhetoricae,  386. 


INDEX. 


563 


Menendez  y  Pelayo,  M.,  Historia  de 

las  ideas  esteticas  en  Espana,  79, 

no. 
Menzel,    Deutsche   Dichtung,  374; 

Germ.  Lit.,  trans.,  374. 
Meres,   Francis,  394 ;    Comparative 

Discourse  of  our  English  Poets, 

392,  499- 

Merkel,  Ovid,  491. 
Merlet,  G.,  372  ;  La  critique  sous  le 

premier  empire,  70. 
Mesa,   Chr.  de,   Compendio   de  la 

poetica  en  versos,  .(./<)• 
Mescolius,  Joh.  Jac.,  Artis  poeticae 

institutiones,  jSj. 
Methner,  J.,  Poesie  und  Prosa,  223, 

427, 

Methods  of  research,  166-168. 
Metre,  452  ;  Kinds  of,  454-456. 
Metres,  Classical,  487-495. 
Metric,  245-247,  279. 
Meumann,  E.,  Untersuchungen  zur 

Psychologie  u.  Aesthetik  d.  Rhyth- 

mus,  /J9,  271. 
Meyer,  Begriindung  d.  Redefiguren, 

237- 

Meyer,  C.  F.,  456;  Historische  Stu- 
dien,  jv/. 

Meyer,  Leitfaden  d.  deutsch.  Poetik, 
427. 

Meyer,  Paul,  371. 

Meyer,  R.  M.,  Ueber  den  Refrain, 
272,  457;  review  of  Bucher's 
Arbeit  u.  Rhythmus,  272. 

Meyer,  Vergleichung  und  Metapher 
bei  Moliere,  327. 

Meyer,  W.,  493,  508 ;  Anfang  u. 
Ursprung  d.  lateinischen  u.  grie- 
chischen  rhythmischen  Dichtung, 
453,  475,  ^9j ;  Ueber  die  Beobach- 
tung  des  Wortaccents  in  d.  altlat. 


Poesie,  4.93  ;  on  the  origin  of  Ro- 
mance Versification,  475. 

Mezger,  488. 

Michelet,  133,  134,  442. 

Michiels,  373. 

Middleton,  J.  H.  H.,  Schools  of 
Painting,  181,  182,  189. 

Miles,  Alfred  (ed.),  Poets  and  Poetry 
of  the  Century,  419. 

Mill,  J.  S.,  Dissertations  and  Dis- 
cussions, 332 ;  System  of  Logic, 
417  ;  Thoughts  on  Poetry  and  its 
Varieties,  417. 

Milsand,  J.,  130;  L'esthetique  an- 
glaise,  115. 

Milton,  395,  455 ;  Introduction  to 
Samson  Agonistes,  396;  on 
poetry,  1 62 ;  Preface  to  Para- 
dise Lost,  500  ;  Prose  Works  (on 
theory  of  poetry),  332 ;  Reason 
of  Church  Government  urged 
against  Prelatry,  396 ;  Tractate 
on  Education,  396. 

Minckwitz,  J.,  Begriff  d.  Metr.,  494  ; 
Lehrbuch  der  deutschen  Vers- 
kunst,  475,  510. 

Minto,  W.,  Characteristics  of  the 
English  Poets,  223,  376,  418 ; 
Manual  of  English  Prose  Litera- 
ture, 223,  237. 

Minturno,  A.  S.,  De  poetica  libri 
sex,  381,  446. 

Mitford,  Inquiry  into  the  Principles 
of  Harmony  in  Language,  501. 

Moberly,  Geo.,  Is  a  rude  or  a  refined 
age  more  favorable  to  the  produc- 
tion of  works  of  fiction  ?  258. 

Moir,  Geo.,  on  Poetry,  211 ;  Poetry, 
Romance,  and  Rhetoric,  211,224. 

Moke,  372. 

Molinet,  429,  note. 


564 


INDEX. 


Mommsen,  History  of  Rome,  490. 

Mondragon,  H.  de,  Arte  para  com- 
poner  en  metro  Castellano,  etc., 
448. 

Montaigne,  M.,  Works  (on  poetry), 
333- 

Montargis,  F.,  L'esthetique  de 
Schiller,  133. 

Montegazza,  P.,  Epikurische  Physi- 
ologic d.  Schonen,  167. 

Montesquieu,  436. 

Moon,    G.    W.,    What   is    Poetry? 

333- 

Moralizing  Criticism,  75. 

Morandi,  L.,  Antologia  della  nostra 

critica  letteraria  moderna,  79. 
Morell,  376. 
Moritz,    K.   P.,    Ueber  d.  bildende 

Nachahmung   des   Schonen,  160. 
Morley,  H.,    English   Writers,  258, 

376;  and  Tyler,  M.  C.,  A  Manual 

of  English  Literature)  224. 
Morley,  John,  418  ;  his  definition  of 

literature,  200  ;  (ed.)  English  Men 

of   Letters   Series,   376;    On  the 
\  Study   of    Literature,   224,   227  ; 

Voltaire,  201,  224. 
Morris,  G.  S.,  British  Thought  and 

Thinkers,    333;     Philosophy     of 

Art,  in,  123,  163. 
Morris,  Wm.,  131,  417;  Hopes  and 

Fears  for  Art,  in;  Lectures  on 

Art,  in;   The  Socialist  Ideal  — 

Art,   in. 
Moulton,  R.  G.,  5,  57 ;  Shakespeare 

as  a  Dramatic  Artist,  27,  70. 
Moyse,  E.  C.,  Poetry  as  a  Fine  Art, 

349- 

Muir,  J.,  Metrical  Translations  from 
Sanskrit  Writers,  515;  Sanskrit 
Texts,  jfj. 


Mulcaster,  Richard,  First  Part  of 
the  Elementarie,  etc.,  388;  Posi- 
tions wherein,  etc.,  388. 

Mulgrave,  Earl  of,  398  ;  Essay  upon 
Poetry,  402. 

Mtillenhoff,  51 1. 

Miillenhoff  u.  Scherer,  511. 

Miiller,  A.,  161. 

Miiller,  C.  F.  W.,  Plautinische  Pros- 
odie,  490. 

Miiller,  C.  O.,  191  ;  Ancient  Art 
and  its  Remains,  189 ;  Varro's 
De  lingua  latina,  490. 

Miiller,  D.  H.,  Die  Propheten,  273. 

Miiller,  Ed.,  Geschichte  d.  Theorie 
d.  Kunst  bei  den  Alien,  113,  /j/, 
144,75^,296;  Ueber  d.  Nachah- 
mende  in  d.  Kunst  nach  Plato, 

***,  153- 

Miiller,  Iwan,  Handb.  d.  klassischen 
Alterthumswissenschaft,  466. 

Miiller,  J.  G.,  De  natura  media  poes. 
inter  philos.  et  histor.,  383. 

Miiller,  K.  E.,  Ueber  accentuirend- 
metrische  Verse  in  der  franzosi- 
schen  Sprache,  507. 

Miiller,  Luc.,  De  re  metrica  lat., 
492 ;  Lucilius,  490. 

Miiller,  Max,  Chips  from  a  German 
Workshop,  516;  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language,  205;  Lec- 
tures on  the  Science  of  Language, 
2d  series,  238  ;  (ed.)  Sacred  Books 
of  the  East,  515;  Science  of 
Thought,  206,  224,  238;  Three 
Introductory  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Thought,  206. 

Miiller,  O.,  370. 

Miiller,  W.,  511. 

Munby,  Dorothy,  455. 

Munck,    Geschichte   d.    rom.    Litt., 


INDEX. 


565 


490;    Die    Metrik   d.    Griech.    u. 

Rom.,  488. 
Mundt,  Theodor,  Gesch.  d.  Litt.  d. 

Gegenwart,  von  1789  an,  379. 
Munk,  370. 
Munro,    Latin    Metres   in    English, 

494 ;  Lucretius,  490. 
Murari,  R.,  Ritmica  e  metrica  razio- 

nale  Italian  a,  512. 
Muratori,    L.    A.,     Delia     perfetta 

poesia  italiana,  spiegata  e  dimo- 

strata,  447. 
Mure,  370. 

Murray,  J.  C.,  .Handbook   of   Psy- 
chology, iib. 
Musical  criticism,  48. 
Musico-medical    explanation    of 

poetry,  273. 
Mutius,  Macarius,   De  ratio  tie  scri- 

bendi  poemata,  382. 
Muzio,  G.,  Dell'  arte  poetica,  446. 
Myers,  418. 

Nacke,   A.   F.,    Reime   b.  d.  klass. 

Dichtern,  492. 
Nadal,    E.  S.,    Essays   (Newspaper 

Literary  Criticism),  52. 
Naetibus,    Gotthold,    Die   nichtlyri- 

schen    Strophenformen    des    Alt- 

franzosischen,  507. 
Naevius,  491. 
Nash,    T.,     Epistle     Prefatory     to 

Greene's  Menaphon,  390  ;  Pierce 

Penilesse,  390,  391. 
Nasarre  y  Ferriz,  A.,  Dissertacion, 

449- 
National    life,   Relation    of   literary 

production  to,  358-362. 
Nature,  Growth  of  the  Feeling  for, 

i63"-i66;     Relation    of,   to    Art, 

139-163- 


Neboliczka,  O.,  Schaferdichtung 
und  Poetik  im  18.  Jahrh.,  423. 

Necker,  Werth  d.  Kritik,  53. 

Nehry,  J.,  Aus  der  Weltlitteratur, 
278. 

Nettement,  373,  444. 

Nettleship,  H.,  132;  Literary  criti- 
cism in  Latin  Antiquity,  70,  fj8, 
759 ;  The  Moral  Influence  of 
Literature,  201,  224. 

Neudecker,  Studien  zur  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Aesthetik  seit 
Kant,  133. 

Neugraf,  A.,  Kritik  u.  Rasonnement, 

53- 

Neumann,  371  ;  Die  Bedeutung 
Home's  fiir  d.  Aesthetik,  106. 

Newell  on  folk-tales,  267. 

Newman,  F.  W.,  on  the  aim  of 
poetry,  282;  Miscellanies,  334, 
476 ;  Second  Lecture  on  Poetry, 
478. 

Newman,  J.  H.,  his  definition  of 
literature,  200;  Essays,  Critical 
and  Historical,  334;  Essay  on 
Poetry,  with  reference  to  Aris- 
totle's Poetics,  334;  Idea  of  a 
Univ.,  208,224;  Lecture  on  Liter- 
ature, 202. 

Nichol,  American  Literature,  378. 

Nichols,  John,  Queen  Elizabeth's 
Progresses,  496;  Illustrations  of 
English  History,  416;  Literary 
Anecdotes  of  the  Eighteenth 
Century,  416. 

Nicolai,  370. 

Nicolai,  1st  d.  Begriff  d.  Schonen 
bei  Kant  consequent  entwickelt  ? 

*3$- 

Nietzsche,  Fr.,  Die  frohliche  \\is- 
senschaft,  272. 


566 


INDEX. 


Niggli,   F.,  Ueber  die  Redefiguren 

und    deren    Behandlung    in    der 

Schule,  238. 
Nisard,  D.,  370,  372,  373,  443,  490; 

fitudes  de  critique  litteraire,  29 ; 

Histoire  de  la  litt.  frar^aise,  29, 

7i- 

Nisieli,  U.  (Fioretti,  Ben.),  Progin- 
nasmi  poetici,  447. 

Nodier,  C.,  Romans,  259. 

Noel,  Roden,  45,  418  ;  Use  of  Meta- 
phor and  Pathetic  Fallacy,  238. 

Nb'ldeke,  Theodor,  Beitrage  zur 
Kentniss  d.  Poesie  d.  alten  Ara- 
ber,  j/5. 

Nordau,  M.,  Entartung  (Degenera- 
tion), 138;  Paradoxes,  138. 

Nores,  G.  de,  Discorso,  446;  Poe- 
tica,  etc.,  446. 

Northbrooke,  Treatise  against  Dic- 
ing, etc.,  390. 

Odell,  G.  C.   D.,   Development   of 

Simile  and  Metaphor,  238. 
Ogier,  F.,  432. 
Oliphant,  F.  R.,  The  Victorian  Age 

of  Engl.  Literature,  377. 
Oliphant,  Mrs.  M.  O.  W.,  English 

Critics,    jo ;     Literary    Hist,    of 

England,  ^77,    259. 
Olshausen,  516. 
Opitz,  M.,  509;  Prosodia  germania, 

422,  423. 

Order,  Instinct  for,  174. 
Ordonez,  A.,  Aristotle's  Poetics,  449. 
Orelli,  Horace,  490. 
Originality,  194;  Tests  of,  355-357- 
Otto,  Ueber  die  Bestrebung  um  Be- 

griindung   einer   Universallittera- 

tur,  ^77. 
Overbeck,  J.,  Geschichte  d.  griechi- 


schen  Plastik,  190;  Schriftquel- 
len  zur  Geschichte  d.  bildenden 
Kiinste,  159. 

Paccius,  Alex,  edition  of  Aristotle's 

Poetics,  381. 
Pagano,   F.  M.,  Discorso  sulla  ori- 

gine  e  natura  della  poesia,  273. 
Page,  G.  H.,  Personality  in  Art,  30. 
Paget,  Violet,  Baldwin  (Value  of  the 

Ideal),  124  ;  Belcaro  (Ruskinism), 

124;  Comparative  Aesthetics,  124, 

172,  178,  179,  190;  Juvenilia./^; 

Literary  Construction,  203 ;    Mo- 
rality in  Poetry,  346. 
Painter,  Introduction   to  American 

Literature,  378. 
Palesi,  F.,  Della  poetica,  447. 
Paley,  Propertius,  490. 
Palgrave,  F.  T.,  418;  Province  and 

Study  of  Poetry,  346;   Scientific 

Study  of  Poetry,  346. 
Pallen,   C.   B.,  The    Philosophy  of 

Literature,  224. 
Palsgrave,  J.,  508. 
Pancoast,  377;  Introduction  to 

American   Literature,  378. 
Panizza,    O.,    Genie    u.    Wahnsinn, 

138. 
Papastamatopulos,  Joh.,  Studien  zur 

alten  griech.  Musik,  489. 
Paradise   of   Dainty   Devices,   384, 

394- 

Paris,  G.,  371,  444,  478,  507,  508; 
fitude  sur  le  role  de  1'accent  latin 
dans  la  langue  fran9aise,  506; 
Lettre  h.  M.  Leon  Gautier  sur  la 
versification  rhythmique,  506 ;  Des 
origines  de  la  poesie  lyrique  en 
France  au  moyen  age,  274;  La 
poesie  du  moyen  age,  372;  Le 


INDEX. 


567 


vers  frar^ais,  496,  506;  (ed.)  La 
vie  de  Saint  Alexis,  506. 

Park,  E.  A.,  48. 

Parnassiens,  The,  439,  443,  444. 

Parrhasius,  Janus,  commentary  on 
the  Ars  poetica  of  Horace,  381. 

Parsons,  James  C.,  English  Versifica- 
tion for  the  Use  of  Students,  476. 

Pascal,  aesthetics  of,  135. 

Pasquier,  E.,  on  the  Proven9al,  430; 
Recherches  de  la  France,  430. 

Passy,  J.     See  Binet,  A. 

Pater,  Walter,  45,  415,  417,  422, 
444 ;  Appreciations,  with  an  Es- 
say on  Style,  125,  225,  334  ;  his 
definition  of  literature,  200 ;  Essay 
on  Style,  124,  125,  208,  211 ;  Es- 
say on  Winckelmann,  125;  on 
divisions  of  literature,  239 ;  Plato 
and  Platonism,  132,  144;  Studies 
in  the  History  of  the  Renaissance, 
30,  in,  125. 

Pathetic,  Aesthetics  of  the,  137. 

Patin,  H.  J.  G.,  370,  373 ;  fitudes 
sur  les  tragiques  grecs,  30,  71. 

Patmore,  Principles  in  Art,  418; 
Sentimental  Essays,  418. 

Patrici,  Franc.,  Delia  poetica  la 
deca  disputata,  446. 

Pattee,  History  of  American  Litera- 
ture, 378. 

Pattison,  M.,  Essay  on  the  Sonnet, 

SOS- 
Paul,  H.,  204,  425,  510 ;  Grundriss 
d.  german.  Philologie,  30,  201, 
225,  259,  271,  350,  476,  511,  514; 
Kanteletar,j-/j;  Nibelungenfrage 
u.  philol.  Methode,  47 ;  on  the 
origin  of  the  folk-song,  268 ;  Prin- 
ciples of  the  History  of  Language, 
206,  225,  238,  271. 


Paulhan,   F.,   130;    Le  langage   in- 

terieur,  292;  Sur  1'emotion  esthe- 

tique,  166. 
Peabody,  Eliza  P.,  Aesthetic  Papers, 

41. 
Peacham,    Henry,    The    Compleat 

Gentleman,  394,  500;  Garden  of 

Eloquence,  jSS. 
Peacock,  T.  L.,  Works  (Four  Ages 

of  Poetry),  334,  415. 
Peele,  396. 
Pekar,  Chas.,  Astigmatisme   et  es- 

thetique,  /6/ ;  Esthetique  physio- 

logique  et  psychologique,  767. 
Pellegrino,    Cam.,    Discorso    della 

poetica,  447. 
Pelletier,  431,  507. 
Pellicer  de  Salas  de  Tovar,  J.,  Idea 

de  la  Comedia  de  Castilla,  449. 
Pellissier,  G.,  373,  444 ;   Essais  de 

litterature  contemporaine,  77,  259; 

Le  vers  alexandrin  et  son  evolution 

rhythmique,  478 ;  La  langue  fran- 

9aise,  507  ;  Le  mouvement  litter- 

aire  au  ige  siecle,  71,  442,  444 ; 

De  sexti  decimi  saeculi  in  Francia 

artibus  poeticis,  430. 
Pellisson,  444. 
Pellisson  et  D'Olivet,  Hist,  de  1'aca- 

demie  fr.,  432. 
Penn,  Arthur  (Brander  Matthews), 

The  Rhymester,  470,  500,  505. 
Penner,    Em.,    Metrische    Untersu- 

chungen  zu  George  Peele,  502. 
Percy,  Reliques  of  Ancient  English 

Poetry,  412. 
Perfranceschi,  G.,  La  letteratura,  la 

civiltk  e  la  scienza,  2*78. 
Perrault,  C.,  65,  405  ;  Parallele  des 

anciens  et  des  modernes,  435  ;  Le 

siecle  de  Louis  le  Grand,  435- 


568 


INDEX. 


Perrot,  G.,  and  Chipiez,  C.,  History 

of  Art,  1 80, 190,  19 1,  199  ;  Introd. 

to   History  of  Ancient  Egyptian 

Art,  182. 
Perry,  T.  S.,  English  Literature  in 

the    i8th    Century,    31,    71,    259, 

334- 

Personality  of  the  Poet,  360. 
Peschier,  Des  phases  de  la  critique 

en  France,  jo,  71. 
Petersen,  F.  C.,  Om  den  Aristoteliske 

Poetik,  97,  757. 
Petit  de  Julie ville,  444. 
Petrarch,  458. 
Pfeiffer,  Fr.,  510. 
Pfizmaier,  A.,  Die  poetischen  Aus- 

driicke  der  japanischen  Sprache, 

5'7- 

Phalaris,  Letters  of,  405. 
Phelps,  W.  L.,  The  Beginnings  of  the 

English  Romantic  Movement,  334. 
Phillips,  Edwafd,   Compendious 

Enumeration  of  the   Poets,  401 ; 

on  Milton,  398 ;   Theatrum   poe- 

tarum,  376,  401. 
Phillips,  Zur  Theorie  des  neuhoch- 

deutschen  Rhythmus,  510. 
Philo  Judaeus,  159. 
Philodemus,  157. 
Philological  Criticism,  47. 
Philosophy,  Relation  of,  to  Litera- 
ture, 203. 

Philostratus  the  Elder,  158. 
Phoebammon,  Concerning  Figures, 

235- 

Phoenix  Nest,  384. 
Phonetics  and  metre,  458. 
Physiological  methods  of  research, 

167. 
Piccolomini,    Al.,   433;     Aristotle's 

Poetics,  446. 


Pichtos,  N.  M.,  Die  Aesthetik  A.  W. 
von  Schlegels,  770. 

Pici,  J.  F.,  De  imitatione  libellus, 
163. 

Pictet,  Du  beau  dans  la  nature,  129. 

Pierson,  P.,  Metrique  naturelle  de 
langage,  478. 

Pietro,  Salvatore  di,  Sul  bello,  770. 

Pilo,  M.,  Estetica,  770. 

Pinciano,  A.  L.,  Philosophia  antigua 
poetica,  448,  512. 

Piringer,  B.,  Ueber  Wesen  u.  Bedeu- 
tung  d.  Poesie,  347. 

Pitch,  453. 

Pizzi,  I.,  Le  somiglianze  et  le  relazi- 
oni  tra  la  poesia  persiana  e  la 
nostra  del  mediaevo,  275. 

Planche,  G.,  373;  De  la  critique 
fran9aise  en  1835,  77>  7^;  Moeurs 
et  devoirs  de  la  critique,  jj. 

Planck,  H.,  Die  Entwickelung  d. 
Naturgefiihls  im  Alterthum,  765. 

Plato,  117,  135,  232,  418,  419;  Aes- 
thetics of,  120;  The  Dialogues, 
in,  126,  127,  334,  478;  on  rela- 
tion of  art  to  nature,  139-144. 

Platt,  Iambic  Trimeter,  494. 

Plautus,  491. 

Play-impulse,  173. 

Pleiade,  The,  429,  430,  431. 

Plotinus,  127,  380. 

Plotinus  on  imitation,  158;  Liber 
de  Pulchritudine  (Ennead  i.  6), 
112  ;  Opera  omnia,  112. 

Plotius,  on  the  grammatical  arts, 
491. 

Plutarch,  157,  158;  De  musica,  489. 

Pniower,  O.,  Die  neue  Litteraturge- 
schichte,  260. 

Poe,  452  ;  Works  (on  poetry),  335  ; 
Works  (Rationale  of  Verse),  478. 


INDEX. 


569 


Poetic  faculty,  The,  280. 

Poetics,  English,  383-422;  French, 
Development  of,  428-445;  Ger- 
man, Development  of,  422-428 ; 
Historical  Study  of,  380-450 ; 
Italian,  Development  of,  445-448; 
Latin  treatises  on,  380-383; 
Spanish,  Development  of,  448, 

449- 

Poetry,  Aesthetic  aim  of,  290 ;  defi- 
nitions of,  280-288;  Dutch,  375; 
effect  of,  291-293;  English,  His- 
tory of,  375-378;  ethical  aim  of, 

*  291  ;  form  of  expression  in,  284- 
285  ;  French,  history  of,  371,  372; 
general  histories  of,  367,  368 ; 
German,  history  of,  373-375 ; 
histories  of,  378-379;  history  of 
modern,  370 ;  materials  of,  283 ; 
national,  histories  of,  363-367 ; 
of  Northern  Europe,  373,  374; 
origins  of,  266—274 ;  process  of 
execution  in,  285—288 ;  purpose 
of,  281-282;  subject  of  treatment 
of,  282-283  >  theory  of,  279-349  ; 
and  prose,  244;  Scandinavian, 

375- 

Politian,  387. 

Polybius  Sardianus,  Concerning 
Schematism,  235. 

Pontanus,  Jac.,  Poeticarum  institu- 
tionum  libri  tres,  382. 

Pontmartin,  A.  A.,  J.  M.  F.  de,  La 
critique  en  1871,  77;  Derniers 
Samedis  (Brunetiere),  78. 

Pope,  A.,  396, 433,  434,  435  ;  Bowles, 
Byron  controversy  about,  287 ; 
Discourse  on  Pastoral  Poetry, 
408;  Dunciad,  409;  edition  of 
Shakespeare,  409  ;  Essay  on  Criti- 
cism, 31,  72,  408,  500;  papers  in 


the    Guardian,   408 ;    Swift    and 

Arbuthnot,  Bathos,  409. 
Porphyrion,  Pomponius,  381. 
Porter,  Noah,  Books  and  Reading, 

32,  72- 

Porthan,  De  Poesi  Fennica,  514. 
Poseidonius,  157. 
Posnett,  H.  M.,  453 ;   Comparative 

Literature,  32,  164,  201,  203,  208, 

249,  250,  260. 
Possevin,  Ant.,  Tractatio  de  poesi 

ethica,  382. 

Post-Aristotelians,    The,   on    Imita- 
tion, 157-160. 
Postgate,  Propertius,  490. 
Potgieter,  79. 
Prantl,  C.  von,  Verstehen  und  Beur- 

teilen,  48. 
Prat,  H.,  372. 
Preller,   L.,   Grundziige  d.  archaol. 

Kritik  u.   Hermeneutik,  47. 
Prescott,W.  H.,  British  Criticism.j-o. 
Prevost,  413. 
Price,  Thos.  R.,  The  Construction 

and  Types  of  Shakespeare's  Verse 

as  seen  in  Othello,  joj. 
Prickard,   A.   O.,   Aristotle   on   the 

Art  of  Poetry,  153,  335. 
Proclus,  490;  Chrestomathia,  486. 
Prolss,    Katechismus  d.  Aesthetik, 

126. 

Prosaics,  245. 
Prose  and  poetry,  244. 
Prose  mesuree,  455. 
Pryde,  376. 
Prynne,  W.,  395,  404;  Histriomas- 

tix,  395. 
Psychological  methods  of  research, 

1 66. 
Psycho-physical  methods  of  research, 

167. 


570 


INDEX. 


Public,  The,  210. 

Purnell,  T.,  Literature  and  its  Pro- 
fessors •  (Weight  of  Criticism), 

5*- 

Putnam,  G.  H.,  Authors  and  their 
Public  in  Ancient  Times,  261. 

Puttenham,  G.,  391,  392,  394;  The 
Arte  of  English  Poesie,  335,  390, 
498. 

Puymaigre,  La  societe  et  la  littera- 
ture,  277. 

Pye,  154;  Commentary  illustrating 
the  Poetic  (of  Aristotle),  90;  Edi- 
tion of  Aristotle's  Poetics,  413. 

Quadrio,  Frc.,  Delia  storia  e  della 
ragione  d'  ogni  poesia,  448. 

Querengo,  F.,  Trattato  della  poesia, 
447- 

Quicherat,  L.,  506;  Traite  de  versi- 
fication fransaise,  479. 

Quincy,  Quatremere  de,  Essay  on 
Imitation,  163. 

Quinet,  Edgar,  442;  De  1'histoire  de 
la  poesie,  378  ;  CEuvres  completes 
(on  poetry),  335. 

Quintilian,  491  ;  Institutes,  235,  380. 

Raabe,   A.    H.,    144;    De    poetica 

Plat.,  112. 
Rabier,  fi.,  Le9ons  de  philosophic, 

i69. 
Raciborski,  Alex.,  Die  naturwissen- 

schaftlichen    Grundlagen   unserer 

aesthetischen  Urtheile,  170. 
Racine,  L.,  Reflexions  sur  la  poesie, 

437- 
Rainolde,  John,  Overthrow  of  Stage 

Plays,  392. 
Rainolde,  Richard,  Foundacions  of 

Rhetorike,  387. 


Rajna,  P.,  Le  fonti  dell'  Orlando 
Furioso,  46. 

Raleigh,  Walter,  Style,  225. 

Rapin,  Rene  de,  436 ;  Reflexions 
sur  la  poetique  d'Aristote,  et  sur 
les  ouvrages  des  poe'tes  anciens  et 
modernes,  395 ;  433 ;  Reflections 
on  Aristotle's  Treatise  of  Poesie, 
400. 

Rapp,  Das  goldene  Alter  d.  deutsch. 
Poesie,  374. 

Rappold,  J.,  Beitrage  zur  Kentniss 
der  Gleichnisse,  238 ;  Die  Gleich- 
nisse  bei  Aeschylus,  Sophokles 
u.  Euripides,  238. 

Rappolt,  Fdr.,  Poetica  Aristotelica, 

383- 

Ratzel,  History  of  Mankind,  273. 

Raube,  Zur  Geschichte  der  italieni- 
schen  Poesie,  273. 

Raumer,  Fr.  von,  Allg.  Litt.-Gesch., 
379;  Ueber  d.  Poetik,  90;  Ueber 
d.  Poetik  d.  Aristoteles,  757. 

Rausch,  371. 

Raymond,  G.  L.,  Poetry  as  a  Rep- 
resentative Art,  479  ;  Art  in  The- 
ory, 769 ;  Poetry  as  a  Representa- 
tive Art,  335. 

Raynouard,  G.,  371,  441. 

Reber,  F.  von,  144;  History  of 
Ancient  Art,  191. 

Reber,  Jos.,  Plato  und  die  Poesie, 
112. 

Reclus,  E.,  Primitive  Folk,  272. 

Recy,  R.  de,  La  critique  musicale, 
48. 

Redhouse,  W.  J.,  on  the  History, 
System,  and  Varieties  of  Turkish 
Poetry,  318. 

Reed,  416. 

Refrain,  The,  457,  458. 


INDEX. 


571 


Regel,  H.  M.,  Ueber  Chapman's 
Homer-Uebersetzung,  502. 

Reggiiis,  Raf.,  Horatii  opera,  381. 

Regnard,  CEuvres  completes  (bibli- 
ography of  the  comic),  137. 

Regnier,  429. 

Reich,  E.,  Schopenhauer  als  Phi- 
losoph  d.  Tragodie,  134. 

Reichel,  Von  der  deutschen  Beto- 
nung,  510. 

Reid,  130. 

Reinach,  Diderot,  439. 

Reinaud,  515. 

Reinhardstottner,  C.  von,  Theo- 
retisch-praktische  Grammatik  d. 
ital.  Sprache,  512;  Gramm.  d. 
portug.  Sprache,  513. 

Reinkens,  Aristoteles  liber  d.  Kunst, 
besonders  iiber  d.  Tragodie,  90, 
154,  296. 

Rells,  W.,  Die  psych  ologische 
Kritik  in  Frankreich,  j-0. 

Remer,  P.,  Die  freien  Rhythmen  in 
H.  Heine's  Nordseebildern,  510. 

Remusat,  Chas.  de,  L'art  par  la 
critique,  53. 

Remy,  M.,  144  ;  Plat.  doct.  de  artibus 
liberalibus,  112. 

Renaldini,  Carlo,  Philosophia  ratio- 
nalis,  383. 

Renan,  Jos.  Ernest,  De  1'origine  du 
langage,  269,  271  ;  Essais  de 
morale  et  de  critique,  261  ;  The 
Future  of  Science,  225  ;  on  spon- 
taneity, 269 ;  Studies  of  Religious 
History  and  Criticism,  33. 

Renard,  G.,  Brunetiere,  77;  Les 
princes  de  la  jeune  critique,  72. 

Rengifo,  Juan  G.,  Arte  poetica 
espafiola,  448  ;  Arte  poetica  espa- 
nola,  512. 


Renton,  W.,  The  Logic  of  Style, 
226. 

Repplier,  A.,  Books  and  Men  (curi- 
osities of  criticism),  49. 

Research,  Methods  of,  in  aesthetics, 
1 66. 

Return  from  Parnassus,  385. 

Reynolds,  Sir  J.,  410;  Discourses 
on  Beauty,  412;  Literary  Works 
(aesthetics),  113;  Papers  on  the 
Idler,  412. 

Rhetoric,  245. 

Rhetorics,  Early  English,  386-388. 

Rhomberg,  A.,  Die  Erhebung  d. 
Geschichte  zum  Range  einer 
Wissenschaft,  48. 

Rhyme,  456,  457. 

Rhythm,  138,  139,  451,  452  ;  Sec- 
ondary, 452. 

Ribbeck,  O.,  370,  491 ;  Ueber  '  unab- 
hangige'  Kritik,  47;  Comic,  lat. 
relliquiae,  490;  Frag.  lat.  relli- 
quiae,  490;  Vergil,  490. 

Ribot,  Th.,  English  Psychology, 
166. 

Ricardou,  A.,  La  critique  litteraire, 
226,  261. 

Riccius,  B.,  De  imitatione,  163. 

Riccoboni,  Ant.,  Aristotle's  Poetics 
and  Rhetoric,  382 ;  Praecepta 
Aristotelis  cum  praeceptis  Horatii 
collata,  382. 

Richardson,  C.  F.,  American  Litera- 
ture, 377. 

Richardson,  J.,  Essay  on  the  Art  of 
Criticism,  49. 

Richardson,  S.,  413. 

Richelieu,  432. 

Richter,  A.,  Die  Ethik  d.  Plotin, 
113 ;  Neu-Platonische  Studien, 


572 


INDEX. 


Richter,  Jean  Paul,  128,  161,  412, 
424;  Vorschule  der  Aesthetik, 
113,  208. 

Rickett,  A.,  Modern  Criticism,  52. 

Rieger,  Max,  Alt-  und  angelsach- 
sische  Verskunst,  jof. 

Riemann,  O.,  and  Dufour,  M.,  Traite 
de  rhythmique  et  de  metrique 
grecque,  489. 

Rigault,  H.,  444;  Histoire  de  la 
querelle  des  anciens  et  des  mo- 
dernes,  72,  432, 508. 

Ritchie,  D.  G.,  133;  The  Relation 
of  the  Fine  Arts  to  One  Another, 
769. 

Ritschl,  A.,  Erlauterungen,  48; 
Accentuirte  Verse,  494  ;  Plautus, 
490. 

Ritter,  F.,  Analyse  u.  Kritik  d.  von 
Plato  in  seiner  Schrift  vom 
Staate  aufgestellten  Erziehungs- 
lehre,  144;  Arist.  poet.,  757. 

Rivet,  Dom.,  Hist.  litt.  de  la  France, 
372. 

Robertson,  J.  M.,  56,  59  ;  definition 
of  criticism,  2  ;  Essays  towards  a 
Critical  Method,  33,  73,  419;  on 
Moulton's  theories,  29 ;  New 
Essays  towards  a  Critical  Method, 
225,  419  ;  on  Sainte-Beuve,  36. 

Robinson,  Frau.     See  Talvj. 

Robinson,  W.  C.,  Forensic  Oratory, 
238- 

Robortelli,  Franc.,  Poetics  of  Aris- 
totle and  commentary  on  Horace's 
Ars  poetica,  j8i. 

Roche,  372. 

Rodenbach,  486. 

Roettiker,  H.,  Zur  Lehre  von  den 
Darstellungsmitteln  in  der  Poesie, 
347- 


Rofsler,  Beitrag  zur  Lehre  von  den 

Tropen,  238. 
Rogers,    Dr.    Chas.,    Memorials   of 

the  Earl  of  Stirling,  J9J. 
Rbhr,     Kritische     Untersuchungen 

iiber  Lotze's  Aesthetik,   134. 
Romance  philology,  370,  37 1 . 
Romanes,  G.  J.,  Thought  and  Lan- 
guage, 206. 
Romantiker,  412,  425. 
Ronsard,   431,  439;    Art   poetique, 

429 ;    Preface   to  the  Franciade, 

429. 
Roquefort-Flamericourt,    De   1'etat 

de  lapoesie  fran9-  dans  les  I2«  et 

136  siecles,  372. 
Roquette,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  Dich- 

tung,  374. 
Roscoe,    W.,   On   the    Origin    and 

Vicissitudes  of  Literature,  Science, 

and  Art,  277. 
Roscommon,  Earl   of,   398 ;   Essay 

on  Translated  Verse,   397,  402 ; 

Translation   of   Horace's   Art  of 

Poetry,  401. 
Rosenberg,  Nordboernes  Aandsliv, 

274. 
Rosenkranz,  K.,  426 ;  Die  Aesthetik 

d.  Hasslichen,   fj6 ;    Die   Poesie 

und  ihre  Geschichte,  335, 379,  427', 

Goethe   und   seine  Werke,  j/7 ; 

Handbuch  einer  allgemeinen  Ge- 
schichte der  Poesie,  378 ;  Poetik, 

505. 
Rosny,  Leon  de,  Anthologie  Japo- 

naise,  518. 
Rossbach,  454  ;  Griechische  Rhyth- 

mik,  486. 
Rossel,  Histoire  des  relations  litte- 

raires  entre  la  France   et    1'Alle- 

magne,  276. 


INDEX. 


573 


Rossetti,  D.  G.,  458. 

Rossetti,  W.  M.,  Lives  of  Famous 
Poets,  376. 

Roth,  515. 

Rousseau,  444;  Discours  sur  les 
sciences  et  les  arts,  437 ;  De 
1'imitation  theatrale,  163;  Lettre 
a  D'Alembert,  438;  Nouvelle 
Heloise,  412. 

Rowbotham,  J.  F.,  History  of  Music, 
181 ;  Origin  of  Music,  181. 

Rowe,  edition  of  Shakespeare,  408. 

Royce,  J.,  Case  of  John  Bunyan,j; 
Psychology  of  Invention,  288. 

Rubinstein,  S.,  Psychologisch-aes- 
thetische  Essays,  767. 

Riickert,  F.  W.,  Antike  u.  deutsche 
Metrik,  509. 

Rucktaschl,  Th.,  432  ;  Einige  Arts 
poetiques  aus  der  Zeit  Ronsards 
und  Malherbes,  430. 

Ruelle,  M.  E.,  Translation  of  Aris- 
toxenus,  757. 

Rufinianus,  235. 

Rufinus,  De  metris  comicorum  et 
de  numeris  oratorum,  492. 

Ruge,  A.,  136;  Neue  Vorschule  d. 
Aesthetik,  128;  Die  Platonische 
Aesthetik,  112,  144. 

Rumpel,  Auflosungen  im  Trimeter, 
495 ;  Griech.  trag.  Metr.,  495 ; 
Griech.  troch.  Tetram.,  495. 

Runciman,  J.  F.,  Musical  Criticism, 
^9;  Side  Lights  (criticism),  52. 

Ruskin,  112,  113,  124,  417,  418,  422, 
452,  453;  on  the  aim  of  poetry, 
282 ;  Arrows  of  the  Chace,  52, 
114;  Aratra  Pentelici,  114;  The 
Eagle's  Nest,  114;  Elements  of 
English  Prosody,  479;  on  imita- 
tion, 154;  A  Joy  forever,  114; 


Lectures  on  Architecture  and 
Painting,  114;  Modern  Painters, 
131,  114,  207,  226,  336;  On  the 
Old  Road,  114,  226;  Prosody, 
451  ;  Seven  Lamps  of  Architec- 
ture, 114;  Stones  of  Venice,  114, 
192 ;  The  Touchstones  of  Poetry, 
297;  The  Two  Paths,  114. 

Russian  criticism,  79. 

Rutilius  Lupus,  235. 

Rymer,  Reflections  on  Aristotle's 
Treatise  of  Poesie,  433 ;  Short 
View  of  Tragedy,  403  ;  Tragedies 
of  the  Last  Age,  etc.,  400,  500. 

Saalschutz,  Von  der  Form  der  hebr. 
Poesie,  516. 

Sacher,  C.  N.,  Die  Grundformen  d. 
Poesie,  u.  s.  w.,  347. 

Sacher-Masoch,  L.  von,  Ueber  den 
Werth  d.  Kritik,  34. 

Sackville  and  Norton,  455. 

St.  Augustine,  159;  De  musica,  492. 

St.  Francis,  160. 

St.  Hilaire,  B.,  Poet.  Arist.,  757. 

Sainte-Beuve,  C.  A.,  6,  45,  372,  422, 
441,  442,  444;  Bayle  et  le  genie 
critique,  j8 ;  Causeries  du  Lundi, 
226,  443 ;  Chateaubriand,  35 ; 
Essays  (trans.),  120;  M.  de  Feletz 
et  de  la  critique  litteraire  sous 
1'empire,  35, 73;  Nouveaux  Lundis, 
443;  Port-Royal,  443;  Tableau 
historique  et  critique  de  la  poesie 
francaise  au  XVIe  siecle,  372, 

43°.  5°8- 

Saintsbury,  G.,  439,  445  ;  Contribu- 
tions to  Traill's  Social  England, 
418 ;  Essays  in  English  Litera- 
ture, 36,  73 ;  History  of  Eliza- 
bethan Literature,  73,  J77;  His- 


574 


INDEX. 


tory    of    French    Literature,   207, 

430,  438,  439;    History  of  Nine- 
teenth   Century   Literature,   377, 

383,  4x4,  418. 
Saisset,  E.,  L'ame  et  la  vie,  13*4 ;  on 

Leveque's  aesthetics,  134. 
Salio,  G.,   Esame  critico  intorno  a 

varie  sentenze,  etc.,  448. 
Salony,    J.,    Du   progres   de   1'idee 

chretienne  dans  la  litterature,  .277. 
Salt,   H.    S.,   The   Socialist   Ideal: 

Literature,  227,  261. 
Salva,    Don    Vincente,    Gramatica 

castellana,  512. 
Samson,  Elements  of  Art  Criticism, 

126. 
Sanchez  de  Viana,  Mig.,  Arte  poetica 

Castellana,  448. 
Sanctis,  F.  de,  Nuovi  saggi  critici, 

46  ;  Saggi  critici,  46 ;  Storia  della 

letteratura  italiana,  46. 
Sanders,  D.,  Abriss  der  deutschen 

Silbenmessung     und     Verskunst, 

480. 
Santayana,  The   sense   of   Beauty, 

207. 
Sarradin,  A.,  Eustache   Deschamps, 

429,  note. 
Sarrazin,  La  renaissance  de  la  poesie 

anglaise,  363. 
Sayous,  373. 
Scaliger,  64,  431. 
Scaliger,  Julius  Caesar,  Poetices  libri 

septem,  381,  430. 
Scandinavian  poetry,  375. 
Schaaff,   Encykl.  der  klass.   Alter- 

tumskunde,  369. 
Schaff,  Philip,  Introd.  to  Poetry  of 

the  Old  Testament,  516. 
Schafrle,  A.  E.  F.,  Bau  u.  Leben  d. 

socialen  Kbrpers,  168,  192,  227. 


Schantz,  M.,  Methode  u.  Entwick- 
lung  d.  rom.  Litt.-Gesch.,  369. 

Schasler,  M.,  121, 128, 136, 144,  157  ; 
Aesthetik,  115;  Grundztige  d. 
Wissenschaft  d.  Schonen  und  d. 
Kunst,  115;  Krit.  Geschichte  d. 
Aesthetik,  90,  115,  131,  155, 322; 
Das  System  d.  Kiinste,  1 1 5. 

Scheffer,  Lapponia,  514. 

Schelling,  F.  E.,  The  Inventor  of 
the  English  Hexameter,  504; 
Poetic  and  Verse  Criticism  of 
the  Reign  of  Elizabeth,  74,  383, 
496. 

Schelling,  F.  W.  J.  von,  162,  427  ; 
on  relation  of  art  and  nature, 
161  ;  Philosophie  d.  Kunst,  127  ; 
Sammtliche  Werke  (Aesthetics), 
116;  Ueber  d.  Wesen  d.  philos. 
Kritik,  47. 

Scherer,  E.,  45,  372,  444 ;  Eludes 
critiques  sur  la  litterature  contem- 
poraine,  36,  48,  74. 

Scherer,  W.,  169;  Gesch.  d.  deutsch. 
Litteratur,  374 ;  Zur  Geschichte 
der  deutschen  Sprache,  480,  510; 
Jacob  Grimm,  262;  Ueber  den 
Hiatus  in  d.  neueren  deutschen 
Metrik,  510;  Poetik,  262,  336, 
426. 

Scherr,  Joh.,  Allgemeine  Geschichte 
d.  Litteratur,  201,  227,  262,  368; 
History  of  Engl.  Lit.,  377. 

Shiels,  R.,  376. 

Schiller,  J.  C.  F.,  161,  173,  424,  426: 
The  Aesthetical  and  Philosophical 
Essays,  336;  aesthetics  of,  127; 
Aesthetic  Letters,  1 23 ;  his  doc- 
trine of  the  Spieltrieb  used  by 
Spencer,  118;  on  the  pathetic, 
137  ;  Sammtliche  Werke  (aesthet- 


INDEX. 


575 


ics),  116;  The  Aesthetic  Letters, 
Essays,  and  the  Philosophical 
Letters  (Trans,  by  Weiss),  116; 
Works  (Trans.),  116;  on  poetry, 
283. 

Schipper,  J.  H.,  452,  453,  454,  455, 
456,  457,  495,  502,  505  ;  Alteng- 
lische  Metrik,  501,  506;  Englische 
Metrik  in  historischer  .  .  .  Ent- 
wickelung,  480  ;  Englische  Metrik 
(in  Paul's  Grundriss  d.  germa- 
nischen  Philologie),  480;  Neueng- 
lische  Metrik,  496,  503,  504,  505. 

Schlegel,  A.  W.  von,  412,  440;  on 
the  ballad,  267,  271  ;  Briefe  iiber 
Poesie,  Silbenmass  und  Sprache, 
424;  on  communal  poetry,  271 ; 
Kritische  Schriften,  117  ;  Lectures 
on  Dramatic  Literature,  424. 

Schlegel,  F.  von,  136,  161,  379,  412; 
The  Aesthetic  and  Miscellaneous 
Works,  117,  424 ;  Lectures  on  the 
History  of  Literature,  262. 

Schlegel,  J.  A.,  423,  509. 

Schleiermacher,  F.  E.  D.,  Ueber  d. 
Eegriff  d.  Hermeneutik,  47;  Vor- 
lesungen  iiber  Aesthetik,  128. 

Schlosser,  F.  C.,  Geschichte  des  iB. 
Jahrhs.,  373. 

Schlosser,  F.  C.,  Weltgeschichte  fiir 
das  deutsche  Volk,  275. 

Schlottman,  C.,  De  reipublicae  lite- 
rariae  originibus,  2jj ;  Zur  semi- 
tischen  Epigraphie,  516. 

Schmeckebier,  O.,  Deutsche  Vers- 
lehre,  510. 

Schmidt,  Erich,  Charakteristiken, 
262. 

Schmidt,  Julian,  373 ;  Gesch.  d. 
deutsch.  Litt.  seit  Lessing,  J7J-. 

Schmidt,   J.    H.   H.,  452,  453,  454, 


489 ;  Introduction  to  the  Rhyth- 
mic and  Metric  of  the  Classical 
Languages,  451,  454,  482,  488  ; 
Die  Kunstformen  d.  griechischen 
Poesie  u.  ihre  Bedeutung,  338, 
454- 

Schmidt,  L.,  Die  Ethik  d.  alten 
Griechen  (Der  Mensch  im  Ver- 
haltn.  zur  Naturumgebung),  165. 

Schmidt,  M.,  Ueber  d.  Bau  d.  Pin- 
darischen  Strophen,  488  \  Griech. 
Takte,  495. 

Schmitz,  B.,  Encykl.  d.  philol.  Stu- 
diums  d.  neueren  Sprachen,  293, 
370, 379- 

Schnaase,  K.  J.  F.,  Geschichte  d. 
bildenden  Kiinste,  192. . 

Schneider,  B.  P.  J.,  Die  Musik  und 
Poesie  nach  ihren  Wirkungen  his- 
torisch-kritisch  dargestellt,  273. 

Schneider,  J.  I.,  Darstellung  d. 
deutsch.  Verskunst,  510. 

Schneidewin,  491. 

Scholl,  Fr.,  370. 

Schonborn,  Th.,  Ueber  d.  Ursprung 
d.  Naturpoesie,  347. 

Schopenhauer,  A.,  112,  124,  425; 
aesthetics  of,  128,  134;  The  Aes- 
thetics of  Poetry,  456;  The  Art 
of  Literature,  37,  227,  339;  on 
poetry,  283;  Sammtliche  Werke 
(criticism),  36 ;  Sammtliche  Werke 
(aesthetics),  117;  Sammtliche 
Werke  (Ueber  Schriftstellerei 
und  Stil),  227;  Welt  als  Wille 
und  Vorstellung,  272  ;  The  World 
as  Will  and  Idea,  117,  161,  238, 
338,  456. 

Schotten,  W.  von,  Metrische  Unter- 
suchungen  zu  John  Marston's 
Trauerspielen,  502. 


576 


INDEX. 


Schrader,  W.,  De  artis  apud  Arist.    ; 

notione  ac  vi,  go,  157. 
Schreiber,    H.,    Allgemeine    Gnind- 

satze  d.  Dichtkunst,  347. 
Schroer,  A.,  Ueber  die  Anfange  d. 

Blankverses  in  England,  502,  503; 

Ueber  die  Aufgabe  der  Litteratur- 

geschichte,  278. 
Schroer,  K.  T.,  Die  deutsche  Dich- 

tung  des  14.  Jahrhs.,  427. 
Schubart,  452. 
Schubarth,   Zur  Beurtheilung  Goe- 

thes,  317. 
Schubert,  De  Anglo-Saxonum  arte 

metrica,  501,  511. 
Schuchardt,  H.,  Reim  u.  Rhythmus 

im    Deutschen    u.    Romanischen, 

507. 
Schultz,  R.,  De  poetices  Aristoteleae 

principiis,  97. 
Schweizer-Sidler,  De  Saturnio  versu, 

494- 

Science,  Influence  of,  upon  critical 
theory,  61 ;  Relation  of,  to  litera- 
ture, 203. 

Scott,  F.  N.,  Aesthetics,  its  Prob- 
lems and  Literature,  777,  note. 

Scott,  F.  N.,  and  Denney,  J.  V., 
Composition-Rhetoric,  238. 

Scott,  Johnson,  Musical  Museum, 
274. 

Scott,  Sir  W.,  414. 

Scotus  Erigena,  160. 

Scribblerus,  385. 

Scmkler-,  Vida  D.,  The  Effect  of 
the. Scientific  Temper  in  Modern 
Poetry,  339, 346. 

Seailles,  G.,  1 30 ;  Essai  sur  le  genie 
dans  1'art,  138. 

Seeley,  J.  R.,  452,  454  ;  Elementary 
Principles  of  Art,  123. 


Seelmann,     Die     Aussprache     des 

Latein,  493. 
Segni,  A.,   Ragionamento  sopra  le 

cose  pertinente  alia  poetica,  446. 
Segni,    B.,    Aristotle's    Poetics    and 

Rhetoric,  446. 
Sehnvald,    Deutsche    Dichter    und 

Denker,  375. 
Seibel,  M.,  Zu  Arist.  irepl  TTO^TIKIJS, 

91. 
Seidl,   A.,   Zur    Geschichte   d.   Er- 

habenheitsbegriffes     seit      Kant, 

136- 

Self-expression,  Instinct  for,  173. 

Selkirk,  J.  B.,  Ethics  and  Aesthetics 
of  Modern  Poetry,  339. 

Sellar,  370. 

Semler,  Chr.,  Die  Gleichnisse  Ho- 
mers aus  der  Xatur  u.  ihre  Bedeu- 
tung,  765. 

Semper,  G.,  Der  Stil,  174- 

Senancour,  Reveries,  441. 

Seneca,  157. 

Seraphi,  Ped.,  De  poesia  vulgar  en 
lengua  Catalana,  448. 

Sergius,  492. 

Seth  and  Haldane,  Essays  in  Philo- 
sophical Criticism,  123. 

Severus,  Julius,  De  caesuris,  492 ; 
De  pedibus,  492. 

Seward,  Anecdotes  of  Distinguished 
Persons,  496. 

Seymour,  Feminine  Caesura  in 
Homer,  494. 

Shaftesbury,  130,  409;  Character- 
isticks,  117,  380,  405;  his  doc- 
trine of  cosmopolitan  culture, 
440  ;  on  imitation,  160. 

Shairp,  J.  C.,  on  the  aim  of  poetry, 
281,  288;  Aspects  of  Poetry,  37, 
339 ;  The  Poetic  Interpretation 


IND^.X. 


577 


of  Nature,  339;    Studies  in   Phi- 
losophy and  Poetry,  339. 

Shakespeare,  121,455. 

Sharp,  W.,  Sonnets  of  this  Century, 

457,  5°5- 

Shaw,  377. 

Shelley,  P.  B.,  A  Defense  of  Poetry, 
340,  415;  his  definition  of  poetry, 
280;  Works  (on  poetry),  340. 

Shenstone,  W.,  on  criticism  and 
creation,  8. 

Sheridan,  Art  of  Reading,  501. 

Sherman,  L.  A.,  Analytics  of  Litera- 
ture, 201,  211,  228,  238;  Litera- 
ture and  the  Scientific  Spirit,  203. 

Sherry,  Richard,  Treatise  of  the 
Figures  of  Grammar  and  Rhetoric, 
j<?7 ;  Treatise  of  Schemes  and 
Tropes,  387. 

Shuckburgh,  Evelyn  (ed.),  Sidney's 
Defense  of  Poesie,  391. 

Sicilia,  Lecciones  elementales  de 
ortologia  y  prosodia,  512. 

Sidgwick,  II.,  The  Historical 
Method,  48. 

Sidney,  Sir  Philip,  387,  391,  392, 
395,  410,  415;  Arcadia,  390; 
Apologie  for  Poetrie,  341  ;  The 
Defense  of  Poesy,  341,  384,  498  ; 
on  poetry,  283,  292. 

Siebeck,  Das  Wesen  d.  aesth.  An- 
schauung,  128. 

Sievers,  E.,  502,  510,  514;  Grund- 
ziige  der  Phonetik,  458,  482  ;  Zur 
Rhythmik  d.  german.  Allitera- 
tionsverses,  501. 

Sill,  E.  R.,  Principles  of  Criticism, 
202,  228, 349. 

Simcox,  Primitive  Civilizations,  180. 

Simpson,  Catullus,  490. 

Sismondi,  372,  379. 


Sittl,  370. 

Sjogren,  J.  A.,  Die  Gemeinden  in 

Kemi-Lappmark,  514. 
Skeat,  W.  W.,  453,   457,    502;    on 

Chaucer,  385,  note  ;  on  Chaucer's 

Versification,  483  ;  Essay  on  Al- 
literative Poetry,  483, 301. 
Smith,  Adam,  Of  the  Imitative  Arts, 

163. 

Smith,  Sidney,  414. 
Snider,  D.  J.,  Goethe's  Faust,  37. 
Soame,  Translation  of  Boileau's  Art 

poetique,  301. 
Social   principles    of    art-evolution, 

178,  179. 
Sociological    methods   of   research, 

1 68. 

Socrates,  Aesthetics  of,  121,  126. 
Solerti,    A.,     Manuale    di    metrica 

classica  italiana   ed    accento  rit- 

mico,  512. 
Solger,    K.    W.  F.,    128,   136,   161  ; 

Vorlesungen    iiber   d.    Aesthetik, 

118,  424. 

Song  and  dance,  273. 
Sonnenburg,  R.,  Wie  sind  die  fran- 

zosischen  Verse  zu  lesen  ?  507. 
Sonnenschein,  E.    A.,  Culture  and 

Science,  346. 
Sorel,  130,  444  ;  on  psycho-physical 

contributions  to  aesthetics,  168. 
Soto  de  Roxas,  Ped.,  Discurso  sobra 

la  poetica,  449. 
Soupe,    A.    P.,    Precurseurs  de  la 

critique  moderne  —  Grimm,  77. 
Souriau,    Maurice,   L'evolution    du 

vers  fran9ais    au    XVIIe   siecle, 

506. 
Souriau,  P.,   130;    L'esthetique   du 

mouvement,    767 ;     L'esthetique, 

la  suggestion  dans  1'art,  767. 


578 


INDEX, 


Southey,  409,  414. 

Souza,  Rob.  de,  Questions  de  me- 
trique,  483. 

Spalding,  377. 

Spanish  criticism,  History  of,  79. 

Spedding,  J.,  Bacon,  417  ;  Essays 
and  Reviews,  417  ;  on  hexameters, 
504  ;  Reviews  and  Discussions, 
483  ;  Sweetness  of  Versification, 

483- 

Speght,  edition  of  Chaucer,  385, 
note. 

Spence,  J.,  383,  415;  essay  on  Pope's 
Homer,  409  ;  Polymetis,  411. 

Spencer,  H.,  116,  173,  419;  on  aes- 
thetic emotions,  130;  Colvin  on, 
183;  Data  of  Ethics,  266;  Edu- 
cation (aesthetics),  118;  Essays: 
Moral,  Political,  and  Aesthetic 
(aesthetics),  118;  Essays:  Scien- 
tific, Political,  and  Speculative 
(aesthetics),  118;  on  figures,  235  ; 
First  Principles,  168,  193,  262, 
451;  On  Gracefulness,  417;  Illus- 
trations of  Universal  Progress 
(aesthetics),  118;  On  the  Origin 
and  Function  of  Music,  181,  272, 
483  ;  Orator  and  Poet,  Actor  and 
Dramatist,  229,  271 ;  Philosophy 
of  Style,  228,  238,  417,  456,  483  ; 
Physiology  of  Laughter,  118,  137  ; 
The  Principles  of  Psychology 
(aesthetics),  119,417;  Principles 
of  Sociology,  1 68,  193,  266,  272  ; 
Social  Statics,  417  ;  his  theory  of 
art-evolution,  178. 

Spengel,  L.,  156;  Ueber  /cdflaptm 
TUV  wa.6rjij.dTwv  bei  Arist.,  90; 
Vom  Saturnischen  Verse,  495 ; 
Zur  "  tragischen  Katharsis "  d. 
Arist.,  97. 


Spenser,  387,  389. 

Spenser,  and  Harvey,  Gabriel,  Three 

Proper,      Wittie,     and     Familiar 

Letters,  etc.,  389,  496. 
Spielhagen,  F.,  Aus  meiner  Studien- 

mappe,    jj,     341  ;      Produktion, 

Kritik  u.   Publikum,  138. 
Spitteler,  C.,  Fleiss  und  Eingebung, 

,38. 

Spontaneity,  269. 
Stael,  Mme.  de,  435,  444  ;  De  1'Alle- 

magne,    440 ;     De   la   litterature, 

229,  263,  439. 
Stahr,  A.,  Aristoteles  u.  d.  Wirkung 

d.  Tragodie,  go. 
Stall,  G.,   Introductio  in    historiam 

litterariam,  .277. 
Stanford,  V.,   Musical   Criticism  in 

England,  49. 

Stanley,  H.  M.,  Studies  in  the  Evo- 
lutionary Psychology  of    Feeling 

(The     Psychology     of      Literary 

Style),  228,  229. 
Stapfer,   P.,    Les   artistes   juges   et 

parties,  38 ;  Petite  comedie  de  la 

critique  litteraire,  37,  163  ;  Poetes 

et  critiques  du  192  siecle,  77;  Des 

reputations  litteraires,  263. 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson,   Library 

of  American  Literature,  378. 
^Stedman,  E.  C.,  45;  The  Nature  of 

Poetry,    39,    74,   286,   342,   384; 

Poets  of  America,  378  ;  Victorian 

Poets,  39,  J76. 

Steele,  J.,  Prosodia  rationalis,  501. 
Steele,  Sir  Richard,  The  Conscious 

Lovers,  413;   The  Funeral,  413; 

The    Lying    Lover,  413;    Tatler, 

407. 
Stein,  H.,  von,  Die  Entstehung  d. 

neueren  Aesthetik,  770. 


INDEX. 


579 


Steinthal,  H.,  Einleitung  in  die 
Psychologic  und  Sprachwissen- 
schaft,  368 ;  Das  Epos,  263  ;  on 
the  origin  of  poetry,  267  ;  Poesie 
und  Prosa,  229 ;  Ueber  d.  Arten 
u.  Formen  d.  Interpretation,  47 ; 
Zur  Stylistik,  204,  208,  229 ;  Zur 
Volksdichtung,  271 . 

Stendhal,  441. 

Stengel,  E.,  371  ;  Metrik  der  roma- 
nischen  Sprachen,  508 ;  Romani- 
sche  Verslehre,  484. 

Stenzler,  515. 

Stephanus,  Heinr.,  editions  of 
Horace,  382. 

Stephen,  I,.,  45,  418,  422 ;  History 
of  English  Thought  in  the  i8th 
Century,  47,  74;  on  Ruskin,  115. 

Sterling,  John,  416. 

Stern,  Geschichte  d.  neueren  Littera- 
tur,  368. 

Stevenson,  E.,  Early  Reviews  of 
Great  Writers,  78. 

Stevenson,  R.  L.,  On  Style  in  Liter- 
ature, 230,  453. 

Stewart,  130. 

Stiernet,  J.  B.,  L'evolution  de  la 
critique,  77. 

Stirling,  Earl  of,  Anacrisis,  395. 

Stirling,  Jas.  H.,  103. 

Stirling,  John,  System  of  Rhetoric, 
238. 

Stockel,  Allg.  Lehrbuch  d.  Aes- 
thetik,  126. 

Stoessel,  Das  Bild  d.  altprovenz. 
Lyrik,  238. 

Stone,  C.  E.,  516. 

Storrs,  R.  S.,  Relations  of  Com- 
merce to  Literature,  .277. 

Stout,  G.  F.,  Thought  and  Language, 
206. 


Stowe,    edition    of    Chaucer,    385, 

note. 
Stramwitz,  E.,  Strophen-  und  Vers- 

Enjambementim  Altfranzosischen, 
484- 
Stransky,  S.,  Versuch.  d.  Entwick- 

elung  einer  allg.  Aesthetik,  134. 
Strater,  Th.,  90;    Studien    zur  Ge- 
schichte d.  Aesthetik    (Die  Idee 

d.    Schonen    in    d.    Platonischen 

Philos.),  133. 
Straub,  W.,  Der  Natursinn  d.  alten 

Griechen,  165. 
Stress,  453. 
Strieker,  S.,  De  la  parole  et  des  sons 

interieurs,  233 ;  Du  langage  et  de 
.     la  musique,  203;  Ueber  die  Sprach- 

vorstellungen,  233. 
Strype,  Annals,  495. 
Stuart,  Antiquities  of  Athens,  412. 
Sturgis  and  Krehbiel,  Bibliography 

of  Fine  Art,  /99- 
Sturm,    Joh.,    Commentary    on 

Horace's   Ars   poetica,   382. 
Style,  207,  208,  233-235,  242-247  ; 

unities  of,  243. 
Stylistic,  242-247. 

Sublime,  Aesthetics  of  the,  136,  137. 
Suchier,  371. 
Sully,  J.,  92,   101,  451 ;  Aesthetics, 

118,  131  ;    Art   and    Psychology, 

119;    Harmony  of   Colors,   119; 

origin    of    art,   775;    Outlines  of 

Psychology,    119,    122,    167,  206; 

Sensation  and  Intuition,  119,  125. 
Sully-Prudhomme,    R.   F.   A.,   443; 

L'expression  dans  les  beaux-arts, 

129.       ' 
Sul/er,    424 ;     Allgemeine    Theorie 

der  schonen  Kiinste,  487,  note. 
Summo,  F.,  Discorsi  poetici,  etc.,  44?. 


580 


INDEX. 


Siipfle,  Th.,  Geschichte  d.  deutschen 
Kultureinflusses  auf  Frankreich, 
275- 

Surrey,  translation  of  Virgil,  496. 

Susemihl,  F.,  488;  Studien  zur 
Arist.  Poetik,  90,  157. 

Sutermeister,  O.,  Leitfaden  der  Poe- 
tik, 342,  426. 

Sweet,  History  of  English  Sounds, 
458. 

Swift,  J.,  Battle  of  the  Books,  405 ; 
Letter  to  a  Young  Clergyman, 
234 ;  Proposal  for  Correcting  the 
English  Tongue,  408. 

Swinburne,  A.  C.,  418;  his  view  of 
poetry,  288;  Wordsworth  and 
Byron,  342. 

Sylvester,  J.  J.,  452 ;  The  Laws  of 
Verse,  or  Principles  of  Versifi- 
cation, 484. 

^ymonds,  J.  A.,  389,  417,  422,  453, 
455;  Essays  Speculative  and 
Suggestive,  3-9,  75,  /^j,  163,  164, 
/7<?,  193,  230;  on  Hennequin's  La 
crit.  scientifique,  21;  M.  Arnold 
on  Poetry,  346  ;  The  Renaissance 
in  Italy,  39,  75, 125,  193;  Sketches 
and  Studies  in  Southern  Europe 
(Appendix  on  Blank  Verse),  485  ; 
Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets,  75, 
193 ;  Wine,  Women,  and  Song, 
494- 

Symonds,  J.  A.  (M.D.),  Principles 
of  Beauty,  123. 

Taillandier,  Dom.,  Hist.  lit.  de  la 
France,  372. 

Taine,  H.,  6,  113,  372,  377,  441, 
444  ;  aesthetics  of,  129,  134  ; 
Colvin  on,  183;  Essais  de  cri- 
tique et  d'histoire,  40 ;  formula 


of,  178 ;  History  of  English  Litera- 
ture, 39,  194,  263,  377 ;  The 
Ideal  in  Art,  119,  194;  his  in- 
debtedness to  Hegel,  129,  note; 
Italy,  Florence,  and  Venice,  119; 
Italy,  Naples,  and  Rome,  119; 
Lectures  on  Art,  119;  The  Phi- 
losophy of  Art,  119,  194. 

Talbot,  372. 

Talvj,  Characteristik  d.  Volkslieder 
germanischer  Nationen,  273. 

Tanner,  Bishop,  402. 

Tarde,  G.,  La  logique  sociale,  173 ; 
Les  lois  de  1'imitation,  271. 

Tarrozo,  D.,  A  poesia  philosophica, 

347- 
Tasso,  B.,  387,  458;   Lettere,  446; 

Ragionamento  della  poesia,  446. 
Tasso,  T.,  Discorsi  dell'  Arte  poetica, 

446. 

Tatler,  398. 
Taylor,  Thos.,  Translation  of  Plo- 

tinus,  113- 
Taylor,  Wm.,  504. 
Technics,  247. 
Technique,  247. 
Teichmiiller,  Aristotelische  For- 

schungen,    132,     150,     151,    154, 

29b. 

Temple,  Sir  Wm.,  405. 

Tempo,  Antonio   da,  Summa   artis 

ritmici  vulgaris,  381. 
Ten  Brink.     See  Brink,  ten. 
Tennyson,  405. 
Terence,  491. 
Teuffel,   370;    Geschichte    d.   rbm. 

Litt,  490. 
Texte,  Jos.,  372,  444 ;  fitudes  de  la 

lit.   europeenne,  444;    L'histoire 

comparee    des    litteratures,    264 ; 

Les    relations    litteraires    de    la 


INDEX. 


581 


France  avec  1'Allemagne  avant  le 

milieu  du  xviiie  siecle,  276. 
Textual  criticism,  Tests  of,  354,  355. 
Thales,  Bernard,  Hist,  de  la  poesie, 

444. 
Theodorus,    Flavius     Mallius,    De 

metris,  492. 
Theophrastus,  157. 
Thery,    A.,    372;     Histoire    des 

opinions  litteraires  chez   les   an- 

ciens  et  chez  les  modernes,  75. 
Thibaut  de  Champagne,  428. 
Thieme,  H.  P.,  La  litterature  fran- 

£aise  du  dix-neuvieme  siecle,  5og; 

The    Technique   of    the    French 

Alexandrine,  joy. 
Thiersch,  488. 
Thirlwall,  Bishop,  Essays,  Speeches, 

and  Sermons,  203. 
Tholuck,  Lectures  on  Biblical  criti- 
cism, 48. 

Thomas  Aquinas,  160. 
Thomas,  C.,  Ethics  of  Criticism,  jo  ; 

Have  we  still  Need  of   Poetry? 

347 ;  Poetry  and  Science,  347. 
Thompson,   D.    G.,    A    System   of 

Psychology,  767. 
Thompson,  Maurice,  276;  Ethics  of 

Literary  Art,  238. 
Thompson,  Robt,  Treatise  on  the 

Progress   of    Literature   and    its 

Effects  on  Society,  264. 
Thomson,    J.,    413;    Edward    and 

Leonora,  410. 
Thoreau,  H.  D.,  Concord  and  Mer- 

rimack  Rivers,  343  ;  Early  Spring 

in  Massachusetts,  230. 
Thought  and  language,  Relations  of, 

205. 

Thurneysen,  R.,  508. 
Thynne,  edition  of  Chaucer, 385,  note. 


Tiberius,  Concerning  Figures,  235. 

Ticknor,  371,  457  ;  History  of  Span- 
ish Lit.,  512. 

Tieck,  412,  424. 

Tilley,  A.,  Literature  of  the  French 
Renaissance,  365;  The  Poetic 
Imagination,  346 ;  Two  Theories 
of  Poetry,  346. 

Tiraboschi,  37 1  ;  Storia  della  lettera- 
tura  italiana,  448,  512. 

Tisdall,  Fitzgerald,  A  Theory  of  the 
Origin  and  Development  of  the 
Heroic  Hexameter,  304. 

Tisseur,  Clair,  Modestes  observa- 
tions sur  1'art  de  versifier,  485. 

Tissot,  E.,  Les  evolutions  de  la 
critique  frai^aise,  75. 

Tobler,  A.,  371;  Vom  franz.  Vers- 
bau,  jo6 ;  Methodik  d.  philol. 
Forschung,  40,  368. 

Tolman,  A.  H.,  453 ;  The  Laws  of 
Tone-Color  in  the  English  Lan- 
guage, 486. 

Tomlinson,  C.,  The  Sonnet :  its  ori- 
gin, etc.,  505. 

Tompkins,  A.,  Science  of  Discourse, 
238. 

Tone-color,  453,  486. 

Tory,  G.,  431. 

Tottel's  Miscellany,  384,  394. 

Tracia,  A.,  Diccionario  de  la  rima, 
512. 

Traeger,  Ernst,  Gesch.  d.  Alexan- 
driners,  506. 

Trahndorff,  Aesthetik,  128. 

Traill,  H.  D.,  Social  England,  407, 
414,  415. 

Translation,  Style  in,  208. 

Trapp,  Jos.,  Praelectiones  poeticae, 

3^3- 
Traversanus,   Fratris   laurencii  gui- 


582 


INDEX. 


lelmi   de    Saona    prohemium    in 

novam  rhetoricam,  386. 
Treitschke,     R.,    Die    romanischen 

Sprachen  und  ihre  Literaturmis- 

sion,  2-j-j. 
Trezza,  G.,  La  critica  moderna,  jo, 

79- 

Triggs,  O.  L.,  502 ;  Literature  and 
the  Scientific  Spirit,  203. 

Trissino,  G.  G.,  La  poetica,  445. 

Tryphon,  Concerning  Figures,  235. 

Tuckerman,  H.  T.,  377  ;  Character- 
istics of  Literature,  78. 

Tumlirz,  K.,  Tropen   und   Figuren, 

238- 

Twining,  154;    Aristotle's  Treatise 

on  Poetry,  go. 
Tylor,    E.   B.,   Anthropology,    266, 

273 ;  Primitive  Culture,  266,  273. 
Tyler,    M.    C.,    378 ;     History     of 

American     Colonial     Literature, 

377- 

Tyrwhitt,  R.  St.  J.,  49. 
Tyrwhitt,  T.,  edition  of  Aristotle's 

Poetics,   413  ;  De   poetica   liber, 

90. 

Ueberweg,  F.,  Aristotelis  ars  poe- 
tica, 155;  Die  Lehre  d.  Arist.  von 
d.  Wesen  u.  d.  Wirkung  d.  Kunst, 
90,  /jj;  History  of  Philosophy, 

90,  IS'.  '55- 

Ugly,  Aesthetics  of  the,  136. 
Uhland,  L.,  Geschichte  d.  altdeut- 

schen   Poesie,  373;  Schriften  zur 

Geschichte    der    Dichtung     und 

Sage,  264. 
Ulrici,   Ueber   Princip  u.  Methode 

der  Hegelischen  Philosophic,  101, 

134- 
Unities  of  Style,  243. 


Urbach,    Th.,    Zur    Geschichte    d. 

Naturgefiihls   bei   d.    Deutschen, 

166. 
Urlichs,  L.  von,  Begriffsbestimmung 

u.  Einteilung  d.    Philologie,  40 ; 

Litteraturgeschichte,  369. 
Usener,    H.,     Altgriech.     Versbau, 

489 ;  Reim  in  altlat.  Poesie,  492. 

Vahlen,    Beitrage   zu   Arist.    Poet., 

/j6 ;  Ennianae  poeseos  relliquiae, 

490- 
Valentin,  Veit,  Der  Rhythmus    als 

Grundlage  einer  wissensch.  Poe- 

tik,  347,  486;   Poetische  Gattun- 

gen,  347- 
Valera,  Juan,  46. 
Van  Dyke,  J.  C.,  Principles  of  Art, 

120,  126,  156,  194. 
Van  Laun,  372. 
Vapereau's    Dictionnaire    universel 

des  litteratures,  54. 
Varchi,  Ben.,  Lezioni  della  poetica 

e  della  poesia,  446. 
Varnhagen,  H.,  Verzeichniss  d.  auf 

d.  neueren  Sprachen  beziiglichen 

Programmabhandlungen,  j/o. 
Vaugelas,  432. 
Vaughan,  C.  E.,  389,  406 ;  English 

Literary  Criticism,  383,  391. 
Vaughan,  Wm.,  Golden  Fleece,  391. 
Vauquelin  de  la  Fresnaye,  Art  poe- 

tique  fran^aise,  430. 
Vavassor,    Remarques,    433;     Re- 

ponse,  433. 
Vega,  Lope  da,  Nueva  arte  de  hazer 

comedias,  449. 
Veitch,  J.,  The  Feeling  for  Nature 

in  Scottish  Poetry,  163. 
Vergalo,  Delia  Rocca  de,  Poetique 

nouvelle,  486. 


INDEX. 


583 


Vernakken,  T.,  Der  deutsche  Vers, 

509- 
Veron,  E.,  Aesthetics,  120,  126, 129, 

132,  156. 

Verrall,  Tragic  Metres,  494. 
Versi  sciolti,  455. 

Versification,  Principles  of,  451-518. 
Vetter,  Germ,  allit.  Poes.,  457;  Zum 

Muspilli    und    zur    germanischen 

Alliterationspoesie,  501,5/7. 
Veyrieres,  L.  de,  Monographic  des 

sonnets,  305. 
Vich,  Diego,  Breve  discurso  de  las 

comedias  y  de  su  representacion, 

449- 

Victorinus,  491,  492. 
Victorius,  Petr.,  Poetics  of  Aristotle, 

-381. 
Vida,  M.  G.,  381;  De  Arte  poetica, 

poeticorum  libri  tres,  381. 
Viehoff,    H.,    Die    Poetik    auf    der 

Grundlage  der  Erfahrungsseelen- 

lehre,  343,  486 ;   Poetik,  505,  509. 
Vigfusson  and  Powell,  Corpus  poe- 

ticum  Boreale,  513. 
Vigny,  de,  443. 
Villari,  P.,  Francesco  De  Sanctis  e 

la  critica  in   Italia,  76 ;    Machia- 

velli  e  i  suoi  tempi,  46. 
Villemain,    A.    F.,    372,    379,    444; 

Cours  de  litterature  frai^aise,  41; 

Discours  et   melanges    litteraires 

(Discours  sur  la  critique),  41,  76 ; 

Tabl.  de  la  litt.  au  XVI lie  siecle, 

439,  442 ;  Tableau  de  la  litterature 

au  moyen  age,  442. 
Villena,  Enrico,  Marquis  de,  El  arte 

de  trobar,  448,  512. 
Villon,  429. 
Vilmar,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch.  National- 

litteratur,  374. 


Vilmar-Grein,  Deutsche  Grammatik, 

511. 

Vincent,  G.,  The  Social  Mind,  igg. 
Vinet,   A.,   373,   444;    Outlines    of 

Philosophy  and  Literature,  230. 
Viperani,  J.  A.,  De  Poetica  libri  tres, 

38f. 
Vischer,  F.  T.,  426,  427;  Aesthetik, 

106,  121,  128,  136,  161,  195,  425. 
Vischer,     R.,     Ueber     aesthetische 

Naturbetrachtung,  163. 
Vitringa,  A.  J.,  De  egregio,  quod  in 

rebus  corporeis    constituit    Ploti- 

nus,  pulcri  principio,  nj. 
Vogt  u.   Koch,  Gesch.  d.  deutsch. 

Lit.,j7* 
Voigt,  O.,  Das  Ideal  d.  Schonheit  u. 

Hasslichkeit  in  d.  altfranzosischen 

Chansons  de  geste,  770. 
Volkmann,  R.,  Die  Hohe  d.  antiken 

Aesthetik  oder  Plotin's  Abhand- 

lung  vom  Schonen,  113. 
Vollmoller,  371. 
Voltaire,  436,  507;  Commentary  on 

Corneille,  437 ;  Essai  sur  la  poesie 

epique,  437 ;  on  metres  and  rhyme, 

506;  Temple  du  gout,  437. 
Voss,  Ed.,  Die  Natur  in  d.  Dichtung 

d.  Horaz,  163. 

Voss,  Gerard.     See  Vossius. 
Voss,  J.  H.,  Die  deutsche  Zeitmes- 

sung,  509. 
Vossius,  Gerard.  Joh.,  422  ;  De  artis 

poeticae   natura  et   constitutione 

liber,  382 ;  Poeticarum  institutio- 

num  libri  tres,  382. 

Wachler,  Handbuch  der  Geschichte 

der  Litteratur,  275,  379. 
Wackernagel,  W.,  505,  511;  Gesch. 

d.  deutsch.  Litteratur,  374;  Poe- 


584 


INDEX. 


tik,  Rhetorik  und    Stilistik,  234, 

238,  243,  426. 
Waddington,  S.,  English  Sonnets  by 

English  Writers,  505. 
Wagener,  Th.,  Herder's  Forschun- 

gen  iiber  Sprache  und  Poesie,  424. 
Waggett,  P.  N.,  Beauty,  ibg. 
Wagner,  J.  J.,  Dichterschule,  343, 

425- 

Wagner,  M.,  The  English  Blank 
Verse  before  Marlowe,  503. 

Wagner,  W.,  Terence,  490. 

Wahle,  R.,  Das  Ganze  d.  Philoso- 
phie  u.  ihr  Ende  (Das  Schone), 
170. 

Waitz,  G.,  Zur  Wu'rdigung  von 
Ranke's  historischer  Kritik,  48. 

Waldberg,  Deutsche  Renaissance 
Lyrik,  374. 

Waldstein,  Chas.,  Essays  on  the 
Art  of  Pheidias,  195. 

Walker,  W.  S.,  Shakespeare's  Ver- 
sification, JOJ. 

Wallace,  E.,  Introd.  to  Aristotle's 
Psychology,  150,  /j-j;  Outlines 
of  the  Philosophy  of  Aristotle, 
90,  155 ;  Kant,  47. 

Wallaschek,  R.,  Primitive  Music, 
181. 

Waller,  396,  397,  504;  Preface  to 
the  Second  Part  of  his  poems, 
^02,  note. 

Walsh,  W.  S.,  Paradoxes  of  Philos- 
ophy (Curiosities  of  Criticism),  49. 

Walter,  E.  L.,  Lessing  on  the  Bound- 
aries of  Poetry  and  Painting,  108. 

Walter,  J.,  Geschichte  d.  Aesthetik 
5m  Altertum,  ij6. 

Walz,  Rhetores  Graeci,  235. 

Warburton,  edition  of  Shakespeare, 
410. 


Ward,   L.  F.,  Dynamic    Sociology, 

168,  195,  s96,  799. 
Ward,  S.  G.,  Criticism,  41. 
Ward,  T.   H.  (ed.),  English   Poets, 

344- 
Warner,  Chas.  D.,  Literature   and 

Life,  231. 

Warren,  F.  M.,  471,  505. 
Wartenburg,    Von,    Die    Katharsis 

des  Arist.  u.  d.  Oedipus  Coloneus 

d.  Sophokles,  90. 
Warton,  Joseph,   edition    of    Pope, 

411;  Enthusiast,  410;    Essay  on 

the   Life   and   Genius    of    Pope, 

411  ;  Preface  to  Odes  on  Several 

Subjects,    410;    Prefatory    Essay 

to   the  Edition   of   the   Georgics 

and  Eclogues,  411. 
Warton,    Thos.,    383 ;     History    of 

English     Poetry,   344,    373,   411, 

448,   495,    500;    Observations  on 

the  Faerie  Queen,  411. 
Wartoris,  The,  407,  412,  413,  415. 
Watson,  J.,  Schelling,   133;  Schel- 

ling's    Transcendental     Idealism, 

1/6. 
Watson,  W.,  Excursions  in  Criticism 

(Critics  and  their  Craft),  j/. 
"/Watts,    Th.,   on     Hegel's    idea    of 
.    metre,  134;  Poetry,  203,  211,  264, 

344- 

Weatherby,  514. 

Webbe,  Wm.,  391,  392,  394  ;  A  Dis- 
course of  English  Poetrie,  344, 
390;  Preface  to  Discourse  of 
English  Poetrie,  498. 

Weber,  Albrecht,  History  of  Indian 
Literature,  3-75- ;  Indische  Studien, 

5I5- 

Weber,  G.,  452. 
Weddigen,  F.  H.  O.,  Geschichte  der 


INDEX. 


585 


Einwirkungen  der  deutschen  Lit- 
teratur  auf  die  Litteraturen  der 
iibrigen  europaischen  Kulturvol- 
ker  der  Neuzeit,  276;  Lord  By- 
ron's Einfluss  auf  die  europaischen 
Litteraturen  de  Neuzeit,  276. 

Weierstrass,  P.,  De  poesis  natura 
et  partitione,  347. 

Weil  and  Benloew,  Theorie  de  1'ac- 
centuation  latine,  493. 

Weil,  H.,  488,  493;  The  Order  of 
Words,  231. 

Weiland,  L.,  Quellenedition  u. 
Schriftstellerkritik,  48. 

Weisse,  C.  H.,  136;  System  d.  Aes- 
thetik  als  Wissenschaft  von  d. 
Idee  d.  Schonheit,  128,  423. 

Weissenfels,  Der  daktylische  Rhyth- 
mus  bei  den  Minnesangern,  510. 

Weitbrecht,  R.,  Kritiker  und  Dich- 
ter,  79. 

Welby,  V.,  Meaning  and  Metaphor, 
238. 

Welcker,  F.  G.,  189. 

Welsh,  377. 

Welti,  Geschichte  des  Sonetts  in 
der  deutschen  Dichtung,  505. 

Wendell,  B.,  English  Composition, 
238;  Stelligeri,  201. 

Werner,  K.,  Idealistische  Theorien 
d.  Schonen  in  d.  italienischen 
Philosophie  des  XIX.  Jahrhun- 
derts,  777 ;  Zur  Metaphysik  d. 
Schonen,  770. 

Werner,  R.  M.,  on  the  Lyric,  428. 

Westphal  and  Rossbach,  Grie- 
chische  Metrik,  486. 

Westphal,  R.,  452,  454,  489,  491, 
500 ;  Allgemeine  Metrik  d.  indo- 
german.  u.  semit.  Volker,  487, 
516;  Ueber  d.  Form  d.  altesten 


romischen  Poesie,  490;  Die  Frag- 
mente  und  Lehrsatze  der  grie- 
chischen  Rhythmiker,  487,  489; 
Harmonik  und  Melopoie  der  Grie- 
chen,  487 ;  Metrik  d.  Griechen, -488; 
Metrik  d.  indogerman.  Volker, 
487,516;  Scriptores  metrici,  486, 
489,  490 ;  Theorie  d.  neuhoch- 
deutschen  Metrik,  487;  Tradition 
of  Anc.  Metre,  487. 

Wetz,  W.,  Litteraturwissenschaft, 
264  ;  Shakespeare  vom  Stand- 
punkte  d.  vergleichenden  Littera- 
turgeschichte,  265 ;  Ueber  Litte- 
raturgeschichte,  265. 

Wey,  508. 

Weyman,  K.,  Studien  iiber  die 
Figur  der  Litotes,  238. 

Wharton,  Translation  of  Aristotle, 
127. 

Whately,  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 
238  ;  on  poetry,  284. 

Wheeler,  E.  F.,  Critic  on  the 
Hearth,  52. 

Whipple,  E.  P.,  British  Critics,  jo; 
Essays  and  Reviews,  42,  349; 
Lit.  of  Age  of  Elizabeth,  377. 

Whitcomb,  Chronological  Outlines, 
378. 

White,  Andrew  D.,  The  New  Ger- 
many, 234. 

White,  Gleeson,  Ballades  and  Ron- 
deaux,  etc.,  503-. 

W7hite,  Greenough,  The  Philosophy 
of  American  Literature,  277,  378. 

Whitman,  Walt,  Poetry  of  the  Fu- 
ture, 347. 

Whitney,  W.  D.,  Language  and  the 
Study  of  Language,  206,  231  ; 
Life  and  Growth  of  Language, 
206,  207,  231,  238 ;  Oriental  and 


586 


INDEX. 


Linguistic  Studies,  516;  Philology, 
205,  206,  231. 

Whittaker,  F.  T.,  Musical  and  Pic- 
turesque Elements  in  Poetry,  346. 

Wichmann,  O.,  L'art  poetique  de 
Boileau  dans  celui  de  Gottsched, 
79>  301. 

Wieland,  412,  509. 

Wiggers,  J.  u.  M.,  Grammatik  d. 
ital.  Sprache,  nebst  Abriss  d.  ital. 
Metrik,  jv/. 

Wilde,  O.,  131  ;  Intentions,  42  ;  The 
True  Function  and  Value  of  Criti- 
cism, 42. 

Wilhelmi,  H.  F.,  Von  den  Figuren 
der  Wortwiederholung,  238;  Von 
den  Tropen,  238. 

Wilkinson,  W.  C.,  A  Free  Lance, 
42. 

Wille,  B.,  Tendenz  in  d.  Poesie, 
170. 

Williams,  Monier,  Indian  Epic 
Poetry,  515;  Indian  Wisdom, 
515;  Preface  to  trans,  of  Nalo- 
pakhyanam,  515. 

Wilson,  H.  H.,  515;  Essays,  Ana- 
lytical, Critical,  etc.,  516;  on 
Hindoo  Dramatic  Literature,  516. 

Wilson,  J.,  46,  414,  415. 

Wilson,  Thomas,  Arte  of  Logique, 
387;  The  Arte  of  Rhetorique,  387. 

Wilson,  Woodrow,  Mere  Literature, 
204,  231. 

Winckelmann,  116;  on  development 
of  art,  177  ;  Geschichte  der  Kunst 
des  Alterthums,  412;  History  of 
Greek  Art,  127,  178,  196;  on  imi- 
tation, 160,  161  ;  Monument!  ine- 
diti,  196. 

VVindelband,  History  of  Philosophy, 
'31- 


Winter,  Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  d. 

Naturgefiihls,  164. 
Witmer,    L.,     Zur    experimentalen 

Aesthetik   einfacher     raumlichen 

Formverhaltnisse,  167. 
Wohlgemuth,    J.,    Henry    Home's 

Aesthetik,  770. 
Wolf,  A.,  The  Truth  about  Beauty, 

169. 
Wolf,  F.  A.,  Encycl.  der  Philologie, 

3<>9- 

Wolf,  Ferd.,  Ueber  die  Lais,  Sequen- 
zen  u.  Leiche,  494,511. 

Wolff,  Eugen,  Prolegomena  d.  litt.- 
evolutionistischen  Poetik,  265 ; 
Litteraturgeschichte  riickwarts, 
265 ;  Ueber  Neuere  Beitrage  z. 
Gesch.  d.  Poetik,  428;  Vorstudien 
zur  Poetik,  271,  345  ;  Das  Wesen 
wissenschaftlicher  Litteraturbe- 
trachtung,  265. 

Wolfrlin,  E.,  Bei  den  Dichtern,  492. 

Woltmann,  A.,  and  Woermann,  K., 
History  of  Painting,  197,  199. 

Wood,  Antony  a,  Athenae  Oxoni- 
enses,  402  ;  Fasti  or  Annals,  402. 

Wood,  Henry,  Beginnings  of  the 
Classical  Heroic  Couplet  in  Eng- 
land, 304. 

Woodberry,  G.  E.,  on  Moulton's 
theories,  29. 

Wordsworth,  John,  Fragments  and 
Specimens  of  Early  Latin,  490. 

Wordsworth,  W.,  on  poetry,  280, 
281,  286,  392,  393,  410,  414,  415, 
4I7>  455  !  Prefaces  and  Essays  on 
Poetry,  345 ;  Preface  to  the  Lyr- 
ical Ballads,  287,  407,  411  ;  Prose 
Works  (on  poetry),  345. 

Worsfold,  W.  B.,  The  Principles  of 
Criticism,  231,  408,  418. 


INDEX. 


587 


Wotton,  405. 

Wright,  T.  H.,  Essay  on  Style,  228. 

Wright,  Thos.,  376. 

Wulker,  R.,  Grundriss  zur  Gesch.  d. 
ags.  Lit.,j77. 

Wundt,  on  the  folk-soul,  269; 
Logik,  42,  47 ;  Ueber  Ziele  u. 
Weg'e  d.  Vblkerpsychologie,  269, 
272. 

Wiirtzer,  H.,  De  origine  et  natura 
poeseos,  347. 

Wyatt,  458. 

Wylie,  A.,  Notes  on  Chinese  Litera- 
ture, 517. 

Wylie,  L.  J.,  Evolution  of  English 
Criticism,  76,  306,  383,  406,  415. 

Wyzewa,  T.  de,  Du  role  de  la  cri- 
tique, 43. 

Xenophon,  Banquet,  121,  126;  Me- 
morabilia, 121,  126. 

Young,  E.,  407,  410;  Letter  to  Sam'l 
Richardson  on  Original  Composi 
tion,  411. 

Zambaldi,  II  ritmo  dei  versi  ital.,  511. 
Zanella,  Em.,  Lingua  e  stile,  234. 
Zanella,  G.,  Relazioni  poetiche  tra 

1'Italia  e  la  Spagna  nel  secolo  xvi, 

276. 
Zani,  Celso,  Poetica  ecclesiastica  e 

civile,  etc.,  447. 
Zanotti,  Frc.  Maria,  Dell'  arte  poe- 

tica,  448. 
Zapata,  L.  de,  Horace's  Ars  poetica, 

448. 


Zarncke,  Ed.,  510,  511 ;  Der  Einfluss 
der  griechischen  Literatur  auf  die 
Entwickelung  der  romischen 
Pros  a,  276;  Der  fiinffiissige 
Iambus,  509 ;  Zwei  mittelalteri- 
sche  Abhandlg.  iiber  d.  Bau 
rhythm.  Verse,  494. 

Zeising,  Aesthetische  Forschungen, 
taS. 

Zeller,  Ed.,  144,  157;  Die  historische 
Kritik  u.  das  Wunder,  48;  Philo- 
sophic d.  Griechen,  90,  132,  fjj; 
Plato  and  the  Older  Academy, 
JJ2;  Summary  of  Hegel's  Phi- 
losophy of  Art,  102;  Zur  Wiirdi- 
gung  d.  Ritschl'schen  Erlauterun- 
gen,  48. 

Zeynek,  R.  von,  Lehrbuch  d.  deut- 
schen  Stilistik  und  Poetik,  427. 

Ziegler,  T.,  Zur  Genesis  eines  aes- 
thetischen  Begriffs,  770. 

Zillgenz.G.,  Aristoteles  u.  d.  deutsche 
Drama,  97. 

Zimmermann,  G.,  Versuch  einer 
Schillerschen  Aesthetik,  /jj. 

Zimmermann,  R.,  144;  Allgemeine 
Aesthetik,  128 ;  Geschichte  der 
Aesthetik,  131;  on  imitation,  162. 

Zimmern,  H.,  Arthur  Schopenhauer, 
His  Life  and  Philosophy,  134. 

Zola,  fi.,  as  a  critic,  30;  Documents 
litteraires  (La  critique  contempo- 
raine),  77. 

Zonaeus,  Concerning  Figures,  235. 

Zottoli,  Cursus  litteraturae  Sinicae, 


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STRATFORD  &  GRP1KN 

§42-644  So.  Main  St.  Lo*  Anuelcs.  O' 


